PRACTICAL 



nETHODOLOGY 




Class _iiill2 

Book ^ ij <J __ _ 



GopyrightN!* 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSnV 



PRACTICAL 
METHODOLOGY. 



BY 



GEO. W. NEET, 

Professor or Peaagogy in Valparaiso University, 
Valparaiso, Inaiana. 



The M. E. Bog arte Book Co., Publisher, 

Valparaiso, Indiana, 

1909. 



/ 

at) 




JLIERARY of CONGRESS 
Two GoDies Received 

I^AK 30 im 

Copyriertt Entry ^ 
LASS 0U ^^Xc. No, 

^^385 



Copyright, 1909, 
By George W. Neet. 



PREFACE. 

The present book is what its title implies, an 
attempt to reduce what is practical and pedagogical 
in the method of teaching the subjects discussed to an 
organized and systematic form. It has been under- 
taken in response, first, to a growing need for a teach- 
able and scientific statement of the truths of method 
for use as a text-book in classes studying methodology ; 
secondly, to a persistent demand of many teachers and 
students for a more specific discussion of method in 
reading, number, grammar, primary language, history, 
geography and nature study than any in print. 

To supply these needs is the main idea which has 
prompted to the preparation of the present volume. 

It is the aim of the present discussion (1) to in- 
vestigate the theory aspect of general method briefly; 

(2) to apply the truths of general method in the study 
of special method in reading, number, grammar, pri- 
mary language, history, geography and nature study; 

(3) to give an abundance of concrete illustrations of 
what lessons in these subjects should be in the light of 
the theory; (4) to criticise existing practices in the 
teaching of these subjects which are believed to be 
unpedagogical. These studies are, therefore, theo- 
retical, practical and critical, 



IV. PREFACE. 

It has constantly been the purpose to organize the 
truths of the teaching act into a system upon the basis 
of a centralizing truth, and thus to introduce unity 
into the discussion to a greater degree than is usual in 
methodology. 

In the critical aspects of the work, the criticisms 
have been merely those of a student of current m.ethod. 
No ill-will has at any time influenced in this aspect of 
the study. 

No attempt has been made to popularize the dis- 
cussion. Popular discussions on method have proved 
all but worthless to the cause of education. 

Simplicity and definiteness have been aimed at 
through the entire discussion to the end that direct 
help might be given to the student of methodology. 

These studies are believed to be the most definite 
and simple discussion in print on method in reading, 
number, gram.mar, primarj^ language, history, geogra- 
phy and nature study. They are, also, believed to be 
in harm^ony with the best educational thought of the 
present time. 

G. W. N. 



CONTENTS. 



Chapter. Page. 

I. General Method, . . . . . 9-31 

II. The Purpose of Reading, . ... 32-38 

III. Subject-Matter of Reading-, .... 39-42 

IV. Basis and Steps in Reading, . . . 43-76 
V. Concrete Illustrations, . . . , . 77-87 

VI. Errors in Teaching Reading, . . . 88-93 

VII. Nature and Origin of Number, . . . 94-100 

VIII. Steps in Number, 101-124 

IX. Steps in Number — Continued, . . . 125-143 

X. Steps in Number — Concluded, . . . 144-154 

XI, The Subject-Matter, Purpose and Basis of 

Number, 155-162 

XII. Errors in Teaching Number, . . . 163-167 

XIII. The Purpose of Grammar, .... 168-181 

XIV. The Subject-Matter of Grammar, . . 182-194 
XV. The Inductive Method in Grammar, . . 195-204 

XVI. Basis in Grammar, 205 210 

XVII. Steps in Grammar, 211-222 

XVIII. Illustrations, 223-254 

XIX. Devices in Grammar, .... 255-264 

XX. Errors in Teaching Grammar, . . 265-274 



Vi. CONTENTS. 

CHAPTfiR. Page. 

XXI. Purpose of Primary Language Lessons, 275-284 

XXII. Nature and Subject-Matter of Primary 

Language, 285-304 

XXIII. Steps in Teaching Primary Language, 305-327 

XXIV. Errors in Teaching Primary Language, 328-331 
XXV. The Subject-Matter of History, . . 332-356 

XXVI. The Purpose of History, . . . 357-367 

XXVII. The Basis in History, .... 368-372 

XXVIII. Steps in History, .... 373-382 

XXIX. Devices in History Teaching, . . 383-387 

XXX. Errors in Teaching History, . . 388-392 

XXXI. Nature and Subject-Matter of Geography , 393-408 

XXXII. The Purpose of Geography, . . 409-418 

XXXIII. The Basis of Geography, . . . 419-423 

XXXIV. St«ps in Geography, .... 424-436 
XXXV. Devices in Teaching Geography, . 437-442 

XXXVI. Errors in Teaching Geography, . 443-447 

XXXVII. The Subject-Matter of Nature Study, . 448-454 

XXXVIII. The Purpose of Nature Study, . . 455-462 

XXXIX. Basis and Steps in Nature Study, . 463-472 

XL. Devices and Errors in Nature Study, . 473-479 

Appendix. 480-486 

Index, 487-495 



CHAPTER I. 
THE NATURE OF METHOD. 

The TeacJmig Act. — The school exists as an institu- 
tion of society in order that the most favorable condi- 
tions may be furnished for the act of teaching. This, 
the teaching act, is the crowning process in all school 
work. It is in this act that the mind of the pupil comes 
into vital touch with the mind of the teacher. It is 
here that the most important duty of the teacher is in- 
volved. To this process all other processes of the school 
point. The school finds the idea that created it in the 
process of realization in the teaching act. The teaching 
act is a process for it is a series of steps directed toward 
the accomplishment of an end. The teaching act is not a 
simple process for it is a large process made up of 
smaller processes. It is not a compound process for 
not all of the processes of which it is made up are of 
equal importance. It is a complex process, since some 
of the processes of which it is made up are of less im- 
portance than others. 

The Processes in It. — A brief analysis of the teach- 
ing act shows that it is composed of three processes, 
(1) the thinking the learner is doing; (2) the thinking 
the teacher is doing; (3) a process of handling ques- 
tions, directions, objects, assignments, and so on — ^the 
manipulation of means in teaching. The first two of 



10 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

these processes are spiritual, or mental, processes, and 
the third is external to both the mind of the teacher and 
the learner and is a physical process. Of these three 
processes the one in the learner's mind is the most im- 
portant, since the other two stand in relation to it of 
means to end. 

Illustration. — In teaching the definition of a noun 
to a class, first, the learner's mind goes through a pro- 
cess of thinking ( 1 ) that the noun is a substantive word ; 
and (2) that it expresses an object by naming it. This 
is the process in the mind of the learner in the teaching 
act. Secondly, the teacher thinks these same points 
through with the student, and of course some additional 
ones, too. This is the spiritual process of the teacher 
in the teaching act. Thirdly, there is a process of ask- 
ing questions, illustrating, possibly referring to text- 
books, etc., going on, and this is the physical process 
in the teaching act. 

Nature of Method as a Subject of Study. — The 
question. What is method as a subject of study ? is often 
asked. It may be answered in a general way by saying 
it is a subject of study the pursuit of which has for its 
special object to make teachers more skillful in teaching 
than they would be without such study. That is to 
say, it is a professional subject for teachers. But this 
much might be. said of any pedagogical study — of 
psychology, for instance. To be more definite, method 
as a subject of study is that professional subject which 
deals with the three processes in the act of teaching. 
Thus the three processes in the teaching act in their 



THE NATURE OP METHOD. 11 

various aspects constitute the material of all study in 
the subject of method. 

The Subject-Matter of Method. — By subject-matter 
is meant the material of study either in any lesson or 
whole subject. It is the thought and feeling embodied 
in any lesson or subject which are to be got from such 
lesson or subject by adequate study. The subject-matter 
always consists of two points, (1) the facts to be stud- 
ied; and (2) the relation in which the facts are to be 
studied. In the subject of method the facts to be studied 
are the three processses in the teaching act, and the 
relation in which they are to be studied is their rela- 
tion to the growth in the life of the learner. Thus the 
subject-matter of method as a subject of study may be 
stated as follows: The subject-matter of method is the 
three processes in the teaching act in relation to the 
growth in the life of the learner. 

Definition of Method. — The actual method in teach- 
ing is a complex and comprehensive thing. It always 
consists of the three processes in teaching. Any defini- 
tion to be accurate must include the various aspects of 
these processes. The following, it seems, does this: 
Method is the triple process in the act of teaching by 
which the learner is induced to take the steps from his 
real condition to a higher condition held up as an ideal. 
This is the definition of the actual method in teaching 
considered in its broadest and most comprehensive sense, 
and the sense in which its study will give the most help 
to the teacher. 

Classes of Method. — Since there are three processes 



12 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

going on in the teaching act, there are, in a sense, three 
methods; the learner's method, the teacher's method, 
and the physical method. These three will be studied 
somewhat in detail. 

The Learner's Method. — The learner's method is 
the movement of his mind in gaining any point of 
knowledge. It is thus a living spiritual process inter- 
nal to the learner's life. Method from this point of 
view is mental growth. That is to say, it is the change 
of potential mental activity into actual mental activity, 
and this constitutes mental growth. 

Illustration. — If the child learns in a number lesson 
that eight plus seven equals fifteen, the activity of his 
mind in thinking the following things is his method: 
first, his mind rethinks the number eight; secondly, his 
mind rethinks the number seven; thirdly, his mind 
thinks the number eight and seven together; fourthly, 
his mind thinks the name of the new number. These 
four steps are the movement of the learner's mind in 
thinking the point of knowledge, and are, therefore, his 
method. This aspect of method calls attention to the 
fact that the thing to be watched and emphasized in 
teaching is the change in the learner's life, which 
should enable him constantly to rise to a higher plane 
of living. 

Definition of the Learner's Method. — The following 
definitions explain the learner's method: 

1. The learner's method is the activity of his mind 
in learning a thing. 

2. The learner's method is the movement of his 



THE NATURE OF METHOD. 13 

mind by which it identifies itself with the thought and 
feeling of the world. 

3. The learner's method is the mental activity by 
which his mind makes the objective the subjective. The 
objective means the unknown or all that may be thought 
about, and the subjective means the self. The self in 
a broad sense means mind and body both. And the 
mental self means one's capacity to know, to feel, and 
to will, plus the effect of one's experiences on this 
capacity. 

4. The learner's method is the process in which 
his mind goes from its real condition to an ideal condi- 
tion. One's real condition is his condition just as he 
is at any time. His ideal condition is one different 
from what he is in at any time, and which actually has 
no existence except as an idea in the mind; hence the 
name ideal. The ideal condition is not necessarily a 
better condition than the real, but may be either a 
better or worse condition. 

The Teacher's Method. — The teacher's method is 
the thinking he does in teaching a thing. Since there 
are many things the teacher must think in teaching a 
lesson or even a single point some of which are more im- 
portant than others, the teacher's method is complex. 
In the study of method as a subject the teacher's method 
is an important topic. It must be thoroughly under- 
stood by one who is to succeed best in teaching. 

By holding in mind that the teacher's method is a 
process of thinking, five elements in general may be 
found in it: first, the teacher must think the thought 



14 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

in the point or points to be taught; that is he must 
think the subject-matter; secondly, he must see in terms 
of development in the learner's life the reasons for 
teaching the subject-matter; that is, he must see the 
purpose; thirdly, the teacher must see the nearest re- 
lated knowledge possessed by the learner which he can 
use as a foundation to build upon in teaching the new 
point; that is, he must think the basis; fourthly, the 
teacher must see the activities the learner's mind puts 
forth in mastering the points of truth in the subject- 
matter; that is, he must think the steps; lastly, the 
teacher must see the means he may best employ in lead- 
ing the mind of the learner to take the steps in master- 
ing the subject-matter; that is, he must think the de- 
vices. Thus the elements in the teacher's method are 
as follows: 

1. Thinking the subject-matter. 

2. Thinking the purpose. 

3. Thinking the basis. 

4. Thinking the steps. 

5. Thinking the devices. 

These five things every teacher does in some sort 
of way in teaching every lesson. Some think out the 
points clearly and accurately, and some think them out 
scarcely at all, and do not know that they do even 
that much. A teacher can think the teaching of a 
single point, a whole lesson, or of a whole subject under 
these five heads and must do so in some way in teach- 
ing. It is worth while to study these five points further 
for the help the study will give. 



THE NATURE OF METHOD. 15 

Suhject-Matter. — In a general way the subject- 
matter is the material of study in any point, in any les- 
son, or in any whole subject. It is the thought embod- 
ied in the thing studied by the mind of the learner. In 
a particular lesson the subject-matter is just that to be 
got from the lesson which the learner should have after 
the recitation. In a particular subject, as grammar or 
history, the subject-matter is just that to be got from 
the subject which the learner should be in possession of 
after having studied the subject. In this general sense 
the subject-matter of education is the whole world of 
thought. While this general study is true, a closer 
study will show that every subject-matter is composed 
of two things: 1. The facts to be studied or taught. 
2. The relation in which these facts are to be studied 
or taught. 

Illustration. — Suppose the words, inquiry, aspir- 
ant, orthoepy, and discourse are to be taught. Now, a 
spelling lesson might be made of it; and if it were a 
spelling lesson, the following would be the statement of 
the subject-matter: The words, inquiry, aspirant, or- 
thoepy, and discourse as to their correct written or 
printed forms. Thus the words, inquiry, aspirant, 
orthoepy, and discourse are the facts to be studied or 
taught, and *^as to their correct written or printed 
forms'' indicates the relation in which they are to be 
studied or taught. But these same facts might be used, 
and the lesson not be a spelling lesson at all. If the 
relation in which they are to be studied or taught is 
as to their correct pronunciation, the lesson is one in 



16 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

orthoepy, and the following is the statement for the 
subject-matter: The words, inquiry, aspirant, orthoepy, 
and discourse as to their correct pronunciation. 

Further Illustration. — Suppose the facts of the 
revolution of the earth around the sun are taught, who 
can say whether the lesson is one in astronomy or one 
in geography? If, however, these facts are taught in 
relation to the distribution of climate, relief forms, plant 
life, animal life, and human life on the earth's surface, 
the lesson at once reveals itself as a geography lesson. 

From these illustrations it is to be seen that each 
subject-matter consists of two things: (1) the facts to 
be studied or taught; (2) the relation in which they are 
to be studied or taught. This relation in the subject- 
matter is called the organizing principle of the lesson 
or subject, and is often the only difference between two 
lessons or two subjects. 

Statement of Suhject-Matter. — The statement of 
the subject-matter is not the subject-matter any more 
than a word is an idea, or a sentence a thought. The 
statement of the subject-matter bears the same relation 
to the subject-matter that the word bears to the idea 
and that the sentence bears to the thought; that is, the 
statement is a symbol and bears the same relation to the 
subject-matter that the symbol does to the thing sym- 
bolized. 

The statement of the subject-matter is valuable to 
the teacher, whether it be of a whole subject or of a 
single lesson. It is very helpful to the teacher because 
it does two things: (1) it names the facts to be taught; 



THE NATURE OF METHOD. 17 

(2) it tells the relation in which these facts are to be 
taught. Thus the general statement of the subject-mat- 
ter is a constant guide to the teacher in teaching any- 
subject, in that it shows, in a general way, what to 
teach and in what relation (how) to teach it. 

Purpose. — Purpose in reality is beginning and end 
in every process. The purpose as idea — the beginning 
urges forward the process of teaching to its realization 
— the end. The purpose first exists in the teacher's 
mind, but is to be realized in the life of the learner. 
The purpose is the effect the mastery of the subject- 
matter should have on the life of the child. In actual 
teaching the teacher must judge the effect the thinking 
the subject-matter will have on the life of the child 
from the effect its thinking has on his own life. That 
is to say, there is no way to tell the purpose of teach- 
ing the subject-matter except from the effect its mastery 
produces on the child's life. The course of study — the 
subject-matter — is usually provided for the teacher. So 
the teacher must start with the subject-matter and find 
out the purpose in teaching it. Much depends in the 
teaching act upon how well the teacher does this. If 
the teacher has definitely in mind just what he wants 
to do in the lesson he will be drawn steadily and con- 
stantly toward its accomplishment. A definite purpose 
(1) saves time; (2) economizes energy; (3) emphasizes 
the important; (4) organizes work; and (5) prevents 
aimless wandering. 

Reflection shows that in teaching any lesson or 
subject there are two aspects of the purpose: 



18 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

1. A knowledge-giving purpose. 

2. A disciplinary purpose. 

In every subject or lesson taught it should be the 
purpose to give the learner some valuable knowledge; 
that is, knowledge useful for guidance in right living. 

It should also be a purpose of every lesson taught 
to give mental discipline; that is, to furnish a mental 
gymnastic to the end of giving the mind health and 
growth and strength by exercising it. 

Basis. — This is the learner's nearest related knowl- 
edge to the new points to be taught, and that upon 
which the teacher may build in teaching the new point 
or points. Thinking the basis is an important point in 
the teacher's method. Many errors are made in teach- 
ing because the teacher does not accurately think the 
basis, and thus attempts to teach a point for which the 
learner does not have adequate basis or he fails to use 
the basis which the learner has. The psychological 
principle underlying basis is as follows : The mind nat- 
urally goes to the unknown from the nearest related 
known. Teaching in harmony with this principle 
means a progressive development of a subject, each step 
becoming basis for the step succeeding it. There are 
many violations of basis in teaching as usually done. 

Illustration. — If the lesson to be taught is that five 
plus four equals nine, the child must know the number 
five, and the number four as basis before he can be 
taught that five plus four equals nine. If the teacher 
should attempt to teach this lesson without having 
taught the numbers five and four, he would meet witli 



THE NATURE OF METHOD. 19 

the difficulty of insufficient basis. Again, if a teacher 
attempts to teach the noun to a class without the class 
having a definite knowledge of an object, he will most 
surely meet a difficulty in the basis. 

Steps. — Steps are more or less complete movements 
of the mind. They are mental things and in the teach- 
ing act are in the life of the learner. They are the ad- 
vances of the mind in mastering the separate points of 
the lesson to he learned. Or in a more general sense 
they are the advances of the mind in mastering the 
various phases of a subject. 

Illustration. — If the lesson to be taught were that 
seventeen minus eight equals nine, the steps would be 
as follows: 1. The advance of the mind in rethinking 
the number seventeen. 2. The advance of the mind in 
rethinking the number eight. 3. The advance of the 
mind in thinking the number eight away from seven- 
teen. 4. The advance of the mind in thinking the num- 
ber nine as the remainder. Again, if the lesson to be 
taught were the definition of a triangle, after the exam- 
ination of several particular triangles, the steps would 
be as follows: 1. The advance of the mind in thinking 
the triangle is a polygon. 2. The advance of the mind 
in thinking the triangle has just three sides. 3. The ad- 
vance of the mind in thinking the triangle has just three 
angles. 4. The advance of the mind in making a syn- 
thesis of these points in the definition, A triangle is a 
polygon having just three sides and three angles. 

To see clearly the steps the mind takes in working 
out any new lesson is a matter of much importance to 



20 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

the teacher. He must know something of the steps or 
he can not teach at all ; and other things equal, the more 
clearly the teacher has thought out the steps, the better 
will he teach the lesson. 

Devices. — The devices are the various means used 
by the teacher to lead the mind of the learner to think 
and feel in the manner desired. In fact, the term 
means is a synonjrm for the term devices. Devices con- 
stitute a very important factor in teaching. There is 
opportunity for the exercise of rare judgment, tact, and 
skill in the selection of devices. When it is understood 
that questions, text-books, and reference books, maps, 
globes, and school apparatus in general; blocks, sticks, 
splints ; and specimens natural and artificial are devices 
in teaching, something of their importance in school 
work becomes evident. Devices are so important that 
among many teachers metJiod means nothing more than 
the manner of manipulating devices. However impor- 
tant they are, it must not be lost sight of that they are 
always determined in the light of the mental process 
they are to induce. They are means to an end, and 
naturally and rightly the end is always more impor- 
tant than the means. 

Method as a Physical Process. — This is the physical 
aspect of the teaching act. The physical method is the 
manipulation of devices, or means, in the teaching act. 
It is, perhaps, using the term method in its most popu- 
lar significance to think of it as meaning the physical 
process in teaching, external to the life of the learner. 
That is to say, it is using the term in the sense in which 



THE NATURE OF METHOD. 21 

most persons commonly use it in speaking and writing. 
This idea of method is the one usually held by such per- 
sons as have not made any careful study of what the 
term really ought to mean. There is a sort of indefinite- 
ness in the minds of such persons as to just what they 
do mean by method. However, upon examination it will 
be found usually that the idea that method is the man- 
ner of doing some physical thing prevails, though even 
this is held in the mind more or less vaguely. From 
thinking of method in this sense there have arisen the 
following terms, so-called methods: Object Method, 
Concert Method, Consecutive Method, Promiscuous 
Method, Lecture Method, Socratic Method, and the Lab- 
oratory Method. 

These all refer in some way to the manipulation 
of objects, questions, discussions, answers, etc., in the 
teaching act, and so are to be studied under method as 
a physical process. 

The Object Method. — By this is meant the handling 
of objects by teacher and pupils in the process of teach- 
ing. It is good work if used judiciously, but may be 
abused and carried to the extreme. It has its proper 
place in teaching number work, primary reading, nature 
study, primary geography, and primary language. 

The Concert Method. — The concert method means 
having students to answer questions, read, speak, etc., 
simultaneously in the recitation. There is much that 
may be said against the concert method, but very little 
to be said for it. It is objectionable because it (1) vio- 
lates the law of self -activity ; (2) stifles individual effort 



22 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

and individual responsibility; (3) does not bring out 
clear, definite thinking nor answers; (4) gives students 
bad habits of study; and (5) leads to confusion, dis- 
order, and chaotic class work. 

The Consecutive Method. — The consecutive method 
of questions and answers in the recitation means begin- 
ning at some point, the head of the class or at the name 
beginning with A, and proceeding in some regular order 
back to the point of starting. In proceeding in recita- 
tion in this way the students know pretty well when 
the turn of each one will come. 

This method, like the preceding one, has many 
things against it, but little to recommend it. It is ob- 
jectionable because it leads to (1) bad habits of atten- 
tion; (2) disorder and disorganization in the class; (3) 
bad methods of study ; and (4) habits of idleness. How- 
ever good a student may be, if, when he has answered a 
question, he knows to a certainty that he will not be 
called upon again for some time, the tendency is for 
him to relax his attention. If the student is not a good 
one, the consecutive method will make him worse. And 
since he is not held to close attention, he is prone to do 
something which will cause disorder and disorganiza- 
tion in the class. Idleness in the class is a direct result 
of inattention, and bad habits of study grow out of the 
student's being able to prepare just those points in the 
lesson which he has reckoned will come to him. 

The Promiscuous Method. — The promiscuous 
method of asking questions and receiving answers in 
the recitation refers to distributing the questions so 



THE NATURE OF METHOD. 23 

that no student will know beforehand when he is to be 
called upon. This method unlike the two preceding has 
much to be said for it and little or nothing against it. 
It is desirable because it (1) fosters habits of attention 
and concentration; (2) is flexible and gives the teacher 
the best opportunities for helping the individual stu- 
dents; (3) fosters habits of order and organization in 
the class; (4) tends to industrious habits; (5) induces 
right methods of study. By the use of the promiscuous 
method students are helped in attending constantly to 
the question under consideration, in the careful prepar- 
ation of the lessons as a whole, and in maintaining 
order and unity in the class. As a rule, the promiscu- 
ous method should be used, if best results are to be 
obtained in class work. 

Lecture Method. — The lecture method refers to 
teaching by means of talks, or lectures. This method 
seems to be growing in popularity. It has even been 
said that the new education consists of the three L^s: 
laboratory, lecture, and library. The tendency in favor 
of the lecture method is an unfortunate one for most 
of the students in the schools of the country. There are 
many kinds of school work to which it can not be 
adapted at all, and there is no kind of school work to 
which it is best adapted. If the lecture method has any 
legitimate place in school work, it is in the college and 
university. That stays with the child which he has 
an opportunity to see, to hear, to think about, and to 
talk about. However it may seem theoretically, it re- 
mains a fact that those things which are digged out by 



§4 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

the student, recited upon in the class, and discussed by 
questions and answers are the things which in the end 
stay with him and do him good. Certainly in the aver- 
age teacher's school work the lecture method is, to say 
the least, to be used very sparingly, and with much 
caution if used at all. A besetting sin of most teachers 
already is, that they talk too much in teaching. Good 
teaching must give the mind of the learner sufficient 
time to connect the new with what is already in his 
mind, the old. The lecture method nearly always vio- 
lates this principle. 

The Socratic Method. — This method takes its name 
from Socrates, a Greek philosopher and teacher, born 
469 B. C. It is sometimes called the developing method. 
It proceeds by the employment of subtle questions to 
lead the student to think what it is desired for him to 
think without telling him anything or just as little as 
possible. **The Socratic Method, more or less perfectly 
understood, has had great influence upon professional 
pedagogy. In many schools for the professional train- 
ing of teachers, and in many school in charge of teach- 
ers professionally trained, systematic questioning of this 
sort is looked upon as ideal teaching; and there is no 
lack of conscientious endeavor to prepare for use in 
recitation series of questions which shall lead the child's 
mind to take the logical steps which given occasion re- 
quires. One who doubts the value of such systematic 
questioning may usually be converted by hearing a 
single typical recitation conducted by a master of the 
art. The power of such a recitation to touch, move, 



THE NATURE OF METHOD. 25 

chasten and direct the soul is so evident, that if So- 
crates and Plato had taught us nothing but how to do 
such work their fame as teachers would be justified." 

The Laboratory Method. — This is often called the 
Scientific Method, or Inductive Method, and it means a 
procedure in which the learner is led to investigate and 
think for himself. It is opposed to taking things on 
mere authority without investigation, and to the text- 
book method. It proceeds by leading the learner to 
deal with the actual material of study rather than to 
deal with what some one has said about it. In botany, 
studied in this way, the learner deals with plants; in 
zoology, with animals; in grammar, with sentences and 
parts of sentences. This method has much to recom- 
mend it. 1. It fosters habits of free inquiry and free 
investigation — the scientific habit of mind. 2. It is the 
mind's natural way of learning. 3. It makes the learner 
self -directive and self-help ful. 4. It fixes with the 
learner right methods of study. 5. It gives the learner 
a critical attitude of mind. All these are character- 
istics of the good student. 

Comparison of Teacher's and Learner's Method. — 
These two methods are alike as follows: 1. They are 
both mental, or spiritual, processes. 2. The mind of 
the learner and the mind of the teacher in general go 
through the same process in thinking the thing to be 
learned. 3. Both the teacher and the learner keep in 
mind to some extent the purpose of the process in the 
teaching act. 

These two methods are different as follows : 1. The 



26 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

teacher, in addition to thinking the truths to be taught 
must think the learner's thinking of them. 2. The 
teacher must think out the means, or devices, to be used 
in leading the learner to think the desired points of 
truth. 3. While both the teacher and the pupil keep 
in mind the purpose, the teacher sees it definitely or 
should do so, while the pupil sees it only vaguely. The 
teacher's method thus includes more than the learner's 
and is more complex. 

Two Views of Method. — The foregoing study sug- 
gests to us that there are two views of method. It is 
unfortunate that educators hold these two views, as 
considerable confusion prevails because of this fact. 
One class of educators, those who have made little or 
no systematic study of method, mean by method simply 
the physical process in the act of teaching. A second 
class, those who have been special students of method, 
mean by method the triple process in the act of teach- 
ing. 

Comparison of the Two Views. — In the study of 
method these two views may be called respectively the 
popular view and the special view. The popular view 
of method is thus that method is the manipulation of 
devices in the teaching act, and the special view is that 
method is the triple process in the teaching act. 

The popular view of method constantly places the 
emphasis upon something external to the life of the 
learner. This has in the past led to much that was 
bad in teaching and is still doing so. The teacher 
loses sight thus of the fact that it is in the learner's 



THE NATURE OF METHOD. 27 

life that the educating process is carried on. He is 
prone to make the manipulating of means in some of 
its aspects the end in his teaching. He tends to forget 
that every question which arises concerning teaching 
must be settled from the standpoint of the effect upon 
the life of the learner; also, that the ultimate question 
is, How does this teaching affect the life of the learner? 

The process in which the mind of the learner mas- 
ters the new point of knowledge is the point of prime 
importance in the teaching act and the thing which is 
always to be emphasized in the study of method. 

The popular view of method leads to almost hope- 
less confusion. Everyone holding this view who hap- 
pens to use any new device in teaching may call it his 
method and give it a name. Since there is almost an 
infinite number of devices which may be used, there 
thus arises a multitude of so-called methods, which no 
teacher can or desires to keep informed upon. This of 
course leads to a hopelessly chaotic condition in the 
study of method. 

The popular view of method has led to much dis- 
paragement of the study of method among persons who 
should be friendly to its study. These are oftentimes 
persons who are very good thinkers, but who have not 
been students of method. It is a common remark 
among this class of teachers that if one knows his sub- 
ject well he can teach it well whether he is acquainted 
with current approved methods in the subject or not. 
These depreciating remarks made about method, which 
arise from a popular view of it, are a source of much 



28 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

harm to the profession of teaching . This is true, be- 
cause many teachers who would otherwise make a care- 
ful study of method and would receive the benefit 
which must come to the teacher thereby, are kept from 
beginning the study by this disparaging attitude. It 
may be safely said that there is need for no one thing 
among teachers more than an intensely professional 
spirit. So it seems strange that some teachers take 
pleasure in making depreciating remarks about method 
work. It is, however, probably to be explained from 
the lack of a true conception of method. This disparag- 
ing attitude toward method is not found to be the atti- 
tude of teachers who have been careful students of it 
and whose conception of it is the true one. 

In summing this up the popular view of method is 
found to be responsible for the three following undesir- 
able results: 1. It tends to place the emphasis in the 
teaching act upon the wrong aspect. 2. It leads to 
much confusion in the study of method. 3. It leads to 
disparagment of the study of method. 

No Danger in Too Much Study. — It is not difficult 
to see that there is no danger of a teacher's devoting too 
much time to the study of method when one takes the 
proper view of method. The teacher can not study the 
process through which the mind goes in mastering any 
point of knowledge and the correct means to use in 
teaching such point of knowledge until he himself has 
the knowledge. For instance, the teacher can not see 
the mental steps the mind of the learner takes in learn- 
ing the definition of the adjective and the proper means 



THE NATURE OF METHOD. 29 

to use in teaching it without first knowing the definition 
of the adjective. To know the method of teaching the 
definition of the adjective is to know the following three 
things: 1. The definition of an adjective. 2. The pro- 
cess the mind naturally employs in learning the defini- 
tion of an adjective. 3. The correct devices, or means, 
to use to lead the learner's mind in learning the defini- 
tion. 

Further Illustration. — In the teaching of history 
this point becomes quite evident. The teacher who 
knows method in history knows the following three 
things: 1. The events of mankind in their relation to 
the struggles of the race for higher life ; that is, history. 

2. The natural process of the mind in learning history. 

3. The best means, or devices, to use in teaching history. 
No teacher can teach history at all without a knowledge 
of the first, and it is equally clear to any person who 
will think, that no one can teach history well without 
a knowledge of the second and third. 

Then to say a teacher can study method too much 
to teach well is equivalent to saying the following: a 
teacher may (1) know his subjects too well; (2) know 
too well the natural processes through which the mind 
goes in learning those subjects; and (3) know too well 
the proper devices to use in those subjects, to teach 
well. 

Factors Determining Method. — About twenty-five 
years ago one of the leading educators of this country 
said *^The law in the mind and the thought in the thing 
studied determine the method.' ' This statement of this 



30 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

truth can not well be improved upon. It shows that the 
two following things are the factors in determining the 
method to be pursued in teaching any subject : 

1. The law in the mind. 

2. The thought in the thing studied. 

That these two factors are the ones which deter- 
mine every rational method makes the above stated 
truth a universal one. 

The Law in the Mind. — The law in the mind means 
the general truths of mind — the forms of activity com- 
mon to all minds. 

By holding in mind that method is the triple activ- 
ity in the process of teaching, it can easily be seen that 
this process must be largely what it is because of what 
the mind can do ; that is, because of the laws governing 
mental activity. 

Again, the method would be different in teaching 
the same subject-matter to a child of eight and to an 
adult, because It is a law of the mind that the child 
could perceive, remember, and imagine accurately, but 
that he could not reason so accurately, while the adult 
should be able to reason accurately. 

The Thought in the Thing. — Each thing is the em- 
bodiment of a thought ; that is, each thing has the power 
to suggest a thought to the mind. Evangeline, the rose, 
and the lily is thus the embodiment of thought. 

By again remembering what method is, it can be 
seen readily that the process is different in teaching 
different things, and so the method is different. The 
processes in teaching the definition of the noun and in 



THE NATURE OF METHOD. 31 

teaching Maude Muller as to interpretation are widely 
different, because of the difference in the thought em- 
bodied in them. And since method is the triple process 
in the act oi teaching, the method is widely different, 
the cause of the difference being the difference in the 
thought in the two things. 

Thus the two things, the mind of the learner, and 
the subject-matter, determine the method. 

The Truth Emphasized. — The whole study of gen- 
eral method emphasizes the truth that teaching consists 
essentially in opening up the way for the realization of 
the child's inherent possibilities, 

** Truth is within ourselves; it takes no rise 
From outward things whatever you may believe. 
There is an inmost center in us all, 
Where truth abides in fullness, and around, 
"Wall upon wall, the gross flesh hems it in, ' 
«#**#*«# ^j2(j ^Q iinow 

Rather consists in opening out a way 
Whence the imprisoned splendor may escape, 
Than in effecting entry for a light 
Supposed to be without." 



CHAPTER II. 

THE PURPOSE OF READING. 

Special Method. — ^Let the reader recall that there 
are five elements in the teacher's method. 1. Thinking 
the subject-matter. 2. Thinking the purpose. 3. Think- 
ing the basis. 4. Thinking the steps. 5. Thinking the 
devices. There are these five elements in the teacher's 
method whether it is thought of in relation to a single 
lesson or a whole subject, as history or geography. Thus 
the plan of method in any particular subject is the 
study of (1) the purpose of it; (2) its subject-matter; 
(3) its basis; (4) its steps; and (5) its devices. 

General Meaning of Purpose. — The purpose of any 
subject is the effect the proper pursuit of that subject 
has on the life of the learner. It is, of course, true 
that the pursuit of any subject will produce different 
effects upon the lives of different pupils depending upon 
the method in which the subject is pursued together 
with the individual differences of the students. But it 
remains that the only way there is of determining pur- 
pose is from the effect produced in the life of the 
learner. So in a general way it may be said the purpose 
of reading as a school subject is the effect the proper 
pursuit of reading produces in the life of the learner. 

Importance of Definite Idea of Purpose, — Purpose 
is both beginning and end in every process of teaching. 



THE PURPOSE OF READING. 33 

It is beginning as an idea in the mind of the teacher; 
and it guides the process in its forward movement to its 
realization in the life of the learner, the end. It is of 
the highest importance to the teacher and pupils to 
have clearly and definitely in mind the purpose of any 
subject before starting to teach it. The evidence of this 
truth is that the purpose determines largely the follow- 
ing points: 

1. The character of the process in teaching. 

2. The means used in the process of teaching. 

3. The end reached by the process of teaching. 

A clear, definite, fervent purpose draws the teacher 
toward what should be accomplished as certainly as the 
earth draws all material things toward its center. A 
clear definite purpose in teaching saves loss of time, 
dissipation of energy, and disorganized, scrappy 
teaching. 

Classes of Purpose. — For the purpose of help in 
study, the purposes, or aims, of reading may be classified 
into (1) the main aim; (2) the subordinate aim. The 
study of reading affects the life of the learner in gen- 
eral in two ways, one of which is more important than 
the other. This more important effect is the main aim, 
and the less important effect is the subordinate aim. 

The Main Purpose. — There are three language units, 
the word, the sentence, and discourse. They had their 
origin as follows: the word was born of a desire to 
express an idea; the sentence was born of a desire to 
express a thought, and discourse was born of a desire 
to express a series of coherent thoughts. Thus the 
work of the word is to symbolize, or express, an idea; 



34 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

the work of the sentence is to symbolize a thought ; and 
the work of the discourse is to symbolize a series of con- 
nected thoughts. 

The subject of reading deals with discourse as its 
language unit. Reading, of course, deals with the word 
and the sentence, too, but not as an ultimate whole. 
It deals with them as a part of discourse as the ultimate 
whole. 

In teaching reading the most important thing to 
be done is to lead the learner into gaining the ability 
of getting the thought and feeling symbolized by pieces 
of printed and written discourse. This is called inter- 
preting discourse, or interpretation of discourse. Thus 
the main purpose of reading may be stated as follows: 
The main purpose of reading is to give the learner skill 
in the interpretation of discourse. He should be skill- 
ful in the interpretation of discourse in order that he 
may come into the possession of the thought and feeling 
of the race as embodied in history, literature^ and 
science. 

It is worthy of note that reading is to give skill 
in the interpretation of discourse. This means the 
ability to interpret accurately and quickly. That the 
learner can interpret discourse is not sufficient. The 
world needs people who not only can do something, but 
who can do it accurately and readily, and this will be 
just the requirement in reading during the learner's 
life. Thus skill in interpretation is the main aim in 
teaching reading — ^the ability to interpret accurately 
and quickly. 

The experience of the human race is the heritage 



THE PURPOSE OF READING. 35 

which it has left to each learner, and in order to come 
into possession of his own birthright he must have skill 
in interpretation. The experience of the race is recorded 
in history, literature, and science. He needs to interpret 
recorded history in order to come into possesssion of 
the experience of the race in its actual struggle for 
higher life. He wants to interpret literature in order 
to come into possession of the ideal struggle of the race 
for higher life. He wants to interpret science that he 
may learn the laws of life and the truths of the great 
laws and forces of nature to the end of conforming his 
actions to the highest welfare of his own life and the 
lives of others. 

Evidence of the Main Purpose. — The question, Why 
is skill in interpretation to be considered the main pur- 
pose of reading? may be asked. And in answer the 
following may be said: All education is to prepare the 
learner for the duties of life. Preparation for life con- 
sists in part in learning to read, and reading should 
thus contribute its part in the process of education. The 
reading the learner will be called upon to do in life is 
predominantly silent readiyig ; that is, interpretation of 
discourse. It is fair to say that more than seventy-five 
per cent, of the reading the average person will do in 
life will be merely the interpretation of discourse — ^the 
silent reading of the daily papers, magazines, works of 
fiction, works of science, literature, catalogues, schedules, 
etc. So skill in getting the thought from these various 
kinds of discourse will be the learner's greatest need 
which the subject of reading can supply. And since 
this is the greatest need to be supplied, the main pur- 



36 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

pose of reading is to give skill in the interpretation of 
discourse. 

The Suhordmate Purpose of Beading. — But to give 
skill in the interpretation of discourse is not the only 
purpose of reading, Reading as a subject of study com- 
prehends the oral expression of the thought and feeling 
embodied in discourse, and it is the purpose in the pur- 
suit of reading to make the learner skillful in this also. 
So the subordinate purpose of reading may be stated 
as follows: The subordinate purpose of reading is to 
give the learner skill in the oral expression, in the 
author's own words , of the thought and feeling sym- 
holized hy discourse. 

It is to be noted that the author's own words are 
to be employed in the oral expression, otherwise it can 
not be regarded as oral reading. If one should get well 
in mind the thought and feeling embodied in a piece of 
discourse, he might express this thought and feeling in 
his own language instead of the language of the author, 
but it could not properly be called oral reading. 

The purpose, or aim, of reading may be summed up 
as follows: 

I. Purpose of reading as a subject. 

1^. Main purpose: To given the learner skill 
in the interpretation of discourse. This, to the end of 
his coming into the possession of the thought and feeling 
of the race as embodied in history, literature and 
science. 

2^. Subordinate purpose: To give the learner 
skill in the adequate oral expression, in the author's 



THE PURPOSE OF READING. 37 

own words, of the thought and feeling symholized hy 
discourse. 

Relation of These Purposes. — While these purposes 
are both important in reading, the purpose as to oral 
reading, the adequate oral expression of the thought and 
feeling in the author's own words, must be regarded as 
of less importance than the main purpose, skill in inter- 
pretation. This is true for two reasons: First, it is 
worth much more to the learner in life to be able to get 
accurately and readily the thought and feeling from all 
kinds of discourse than to read well orally. Secondly, 
correct interpretation precedes and is fundamental to 
correct oral reading. It is self-evident that the learner 
can not adequately express the thought and feeling em- 
bodied in discourse when he has not come into posses- 
sion of that thought and feeling himself. Skill in oral 
reading presupposes skill in interpretation. There is 
no surer way for a teacher to fail in obtaining good 
oral expression than by fixing his eye upon the oral 
expression to such an extent that he loses sight of the 
importance of interpretation and so slights it. Mistakes 
in oral reading usually have their origin in mistakes in 
interpretation. Some have even asserted that if a 
student has the thought and feeling which are sym- 
bolized by the selection, he will always read it well 
orally. But this puts it too strong, though it certainly 
is true that the student will generally read well orally, 
if the interpretation has been well done. 

The Purposes of Reading and Literature. — The 
question for study here is. Are the purposes of reading 
as a subject and of literature as a subject different in 



38 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

any way, and if different, how ? A little careful think- 
ing on this point will show that the purpose of reading 
is as different from the purpose of literature as the pur- 
pose of reading is different from the purpose of history. 
In fact they differ in very much the same way. Read- 
ing has for its purpose to give skill in interpretation, 
also, in oral expression, while literature has for its pur- 
pose the chastening and ennobling effect on the learner's 
life produced by the thought and feeling got. In read- 
ing the learner reads that he may become skillful in 
reading. In literature he reads for the uplift in his life 
given by the thought and feeling. It is not the main 
purpose of literature as a subject of study to give skill 
in reading, while in reading this is always the main 
thing to be aimed at. The aims of reading and liter- 
ature are not at all identical as sometimes supposed. 



CHAPTER III. 

THE SUBJECT-MATTER OP READENTG. 

The School Curriculum. — The school curriculum is 
the course of study for the school. It is made up of 
the various school subjects ; as arithmetic, history, gram- 
mar, reading, spelling, geography, etc. The subjects in 
the school curriculum as a whole may be divided into 
groups for the purpose of study, as follows: 1. The 
language group, consisting of reading, writing, spelling, 
orthoepy, etymology, lexicology, grammar, literature, 
composition, rhetoric and primary language. 2. The 
mathematical group consisting of arithmetic, algebra, 
geometry, trigonometry, calculus and surveying. 3. The 
natural science group consisting of physiology, botany, 
zoology, psychology, chemistry, physics, astronomy, 
geography and geology. 4. The history group consisting 
of United States history, English history and general 
history. 5. The art group consisting of drawing and 
music. 

The Language Group. — The language group is a 
group of subjects which have, in general, for their sub- 
ject-matter language as a means for communicating, or 
expressing, thought. As was seen in previous study, 
there are three language units, the word, the sentence^ 
and discourse. Some of the subjects in the language 
group deal with the word as their language unit and 
are thus known as word studies; one deals with the 



40 



PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 



sentence as its language unit and thus is known as a 
sentence study; and some deal with discourse as their 
language unit and thus are known as discourse studies. 
The word studies are spelling, orthoepy, etymology, and 
lexicology. Spelling is that word study which treats of 
the correct form of the written or printed word. Or- 
thoepy is that word study which treats of the correct 
pronunciation of words. Etymology is that word study 
which treats of the derivation of words. Lexicology is 
that word study which treats of the meaning of words. 

The sentence study is grammar. And grammar 
may be defined in general as the language subject which 
deals with the sentence as an instrument in communi- 
cating thought. 

The discourse studies are reading, literature, rhet- 
oric, composition, and primary language. Reading, lit- 
erature, and rhetoric as the science of discourse deal 
with discourse as a finished product. Composition and 
primary language deal with discourse in the process of 
construction ; that is, as an unfinished product. 

The following diagram will reveal the relation 
among the subjects in the language group: 
f f Spelling. 

The Word \ Orthoepy, 
ine wora -j Etymology. 



Lexicology. 
The Sentence <{ Grammar. 



Language Units < 



Discourse •{ 



{Reading. 
Literature. 
Rhetoric. 

! Composition. 
Primary Lan- 
guage. 



THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF READING. 41 

Definite Suhject-Matter. — It will be remembered 
that every subject-matter consists of two things; first, 
facts; secondly, the relation in which these facts are to 
be considered. Then these two things are to be found 
in the subject-matter of reading. The facts to be dealt 
with in reading are facts of discourse. That is to say, 
reading as a subject deals with pieces of discourse, and 
it does this in two ways; first, as to its interpretation; 
secondly, as to the oral expression of its thought and 
feeling. Interpretation comes first in importance and 
first in time. Interpretation is fundamental to oral ex- 
pression and is presupposed by it. There is no such 
thing as adequate oral expression without correct inter- 
pretation. 

The following is the formal statement for the sub- 
ject-matter of reading: The subject-matter of reading 
is discourse primarily as to its interpretation and 
secondarily as to the adequate oral expression of its 
thought and feeling in the author's own words. 

It will be seen that this statement is very helpful 
to the teacher in that it is a constant guide to him in 
teaching reading. This is true because it tells him what 
to teach and the relation in which to teach it, that is, 
how, in general, to teach it. 

Definition of Reading. — As has been repeatedly 
seen the main thing in reading is getting the 
thought and feeling of which discourse is the symbol. 
This is sometimes appropriately called silent reading. 
It matters not what it is called so long as teachers see 
that it is the important thing in reading, and thus is the 
thing to be emphasized. Oral expression of course is 



42 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

important, but not so important as getting thought and 
feeling, because the learner will not use his ability in 
oral expression more than one-tenth as much in life as 
he will use his ability to interpret. 

Reading is a discourse study and it is that one 
which deals with discourse in the two ways often indi- 
cated in these studies. The following is the formal 
definition for it : Reading is that language study which 
deals with discourse as to its interpretation and the oral 
expression of its thought and feeling in the language of 
the author. 

It appears from this definition that there are two 
aspects of reading, interpretation and oral expression. 
These two aspects are usually called silent reading and 
oral reading, and they may be defined as follows : Silent 
reading is the process of getting the thought and feeling 
embodied in discourse. Oral reading is the process of 
expressing aloud in the language of the author the 
thought and feeling embodied in discourse. 



CHAPTER IV. 

BASIS AND STEPS IN READING. 

Stages of Reading. — For the purpose of studying 
its method it is convenient to divide reading work into 
two stages ; the first in a very general way, consisting of 
about the first three years of the child's reading work, 
and the second, in a general way, consisting of the rest 
of the work he does in reading in school. Various names 
are given to these two stages. The first stage has been 
called the preparatory stage, the primary stage, and the 
word stage. The term, preparatory stage, is a very ap- 
propriate term, because it is significant of the fact that 
the learner is preparing in this stage to do real reading 
later on. The second stage has been called the stage of 
reading proper, the advanced stage, and the discourse 
stage. The term, stage of reading proper, is perhaps the 
most significant term for this stage. It has been said 
that in the preparatory stage the child learns to read 
while in the stage of reading proper he reads to learn. 

The Preparatory Stage. — This stage is character- 
ized by the following points : 1. The written or printed 
word as an isolated thing is dealt with largely. 2. The 
oral expression is emphasized. 3. The scope of the work 
is narrow. 4. The pieces of discourse dealt with are not 
important because of the value of the thought they 
express. 



44 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

In this stage the child learns a vocabulary of 
written or printed words as to meaning in order that he 
may recognize them in discourse later on, he also gets 
started right in oral expression ; the amount of the work 
done in this stage is comparatively small ; lastly, he will 
read little pieces of discourse most of which do not con- 
tain thought of permanent value. Of course, some 
pieces he studies will contain thought of permanent 
value, but these will be the exception rather than the 
rule in this stage of reading. 

Illustration. — In this stage of the work the follow- 
ing words might be taught to the child : hat, see, tahlCf 
hig, I, a, it, is, the, on, and black. These would be 
taught to the child so that he could recognize them at 
sight, and know both the idea for which they are sym- 
bols and their correct pronunciation. After this was 
done the following little piece of discourse might be 
made of them and used as a reading lesson : 

I see a hat. 

It is on the table. 

The hat is black. 

The big black hat is on the table. 

In the first part of this work the child is dealing 
with words as wholes. He is learning their meaning and 
correct pronunciation. In the second part he is dealing 
with a little piece of discourse whose thought is not of 
much value, but the oral expression of which is valu- 
able at this time to the child. 

The Stage of Reading Proper. — This stage is char- 
acterized by the following: 1. Discourse as a whole is 
dealt with predominantly. 2. The scope of the work in 



BASIS AND STEPS IN READING. 45 

this stage is wide. 3. Interpretation is emphasized. 
4. The discourse which embodies thought valuable in 
itself is dealt with largely. There will perhaps be 
pieces dealt .with whose thought is not very valuable, but 
these will be the exception rather than the rule. 

The Starting Point. — The starting point in teach- 
ing reading to beginners will be determined by two 
things: 1. What the child knows when he comes to 
school which can be used as a foundation; that is, what 
basis the learner has when he comes to school. 2. What 
the first reading work to be learned is. That is to say, 
the learner is to be led to the unknown from the nearest 
related known. 

Basis. — What does the average child at the age 
of six know that can be used as a basis in beginning 
to teach reading? The answer to this question is, that 
(1) he has a goodly stock of ideas of objects, attributes, 
and relations in the world about him; (2) he knows the 
oral expression, or oral word, for each of these ideas. 
Another way of saying this is, that the child has quite 
a good vocabulary of oral words. 

There has been considerable systematic study re- 
cently of children's vocabularies with a view to finding 
out how many oral words the average child knows and 
can use correctly when he comes to school at the age of 
six. The following are some results of such study: 
The vocabulary of Portia Bell, when two years old, 
December 1, 1899, consisted of 1,073 words. The vo- 
cabulary of Lyle Hugart, Valparaiso, Ind., consisted, 
when she was two years and five months old, of 973 
words. The vocabulary of Helen Neet, when four years 



46 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

and eight months old, consisted of 1,468 words. Hol- 
den reports that his son spoke three hundred and ninety- 
seven words at the age of two. J. M. Greenwood, Super- 
intendent of schools, Kansas City, reports a little girl's 
using five hundred words at the age of two years. 

From these and other well known cases a safe in- 
ference is that the average child when he comes to school 
at the age of six has at least a vocabulary of from 1,200 
to 1,500 words. 

While it has been common knowledge of child 
study students for more than a decade that the average 
child of six has a vocabulary of from 1,200 words up, 
there are many persons to be found ready to dispute it, 
but not those acquainted with recent researches along 
this line. Too many good scientific men and women 
bear testimony to its correctness for it to be a mistake. 
It is disputed by those only who are ignorant of recent 
investigations on this point. 

The First Unknown. — Having found out what the 
child knows which can be used as a basis in beginning 
reading, the next question is. What is the first unknown 
to be taught the child? Before the child can read at 
all he must know printed or written words at sight. 
Thus the first unknown in reading is a vocabulary of 
written or printed words. Accordingly the starting 
point in teaching reading is to teach the child a vocabu- 
lary of written or printed words. 

Methods of Beginning. — Several methods have been 
used, and are still in use, in teaching the child this 
vocabulary of written or printed words. The following 
are the names of these methods : 



BASIS AND STEPS IN READING. 47 

1. The Alphabet Method. 

2. The Synthetic Word Method. 

3. The Sentence Method. 

4. The Analytic Word Method. 

Some time will be devoted to the study of each of 
these for the help it will give. 

The Alphabet Method. — This is no doubt the oldest 
and very poorest method of teaching beginning reading. 
The Greeks in ancient Athens used this method 2,500 
years ago. 

In teaching by this method the teacher proceeds to 
teach the children the names of the letters of the alpha- 
bet by rote. The teacher points to a letter and pro- 
nounces its name and asks the child to pronounce it; 
then he points to another, pronounces its name, and 
asks the child to pronounce it; then another, and an- 
other, and so on through the alphabet. This kind of 
exercise is kept up from day to day until the child 
knows the names of the letters at sight, successively, 
promiscuously, or in an inverse order. 

The next general line of work is to teach the chil- 
dren to spell orally small words made up, of course, 
of the letters whose names the children know. This 
line of work may or may not be begun before the chil- 
dren have learned the names of all the letters of the 
alphabet. Thus these two lines of work — (1) learning 
the names of the letters of the alphabet by rote; and 
(2) learning to spell orally — may overlap. 

After having learned to spell orally, and pronounce 
a number of words in the manner indicated above, the 
children are started to reading small pieces of discourse 



48 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

made up of the words they have been spelling orally. 
The children are encouraged to spell out the new words 
when they come to them according to this way of teach- 
ing reading. 

There thus appear to be three general lines of work 
in teaching reading by the alphabet method, as follows : 

1. Teaching the names of the letters by rote. 

2. Teaching children to spell orally. 

3. Having the children to read small pieces of dis- 
course made up from the words whose pronunciation 
they have learned in the oral spelling. 

It is evident that this must be a very slow and 
uninteresting way for the children to learn to read. In 
fact from a pedagogical point of view it has not one 
feature to recommend it. There are numerous points 
against it, but none for it. The following are some 
objections to it: 

1. It is the most formal and driest sort of rote 
work. 

2. It has little or no direct interest to the chil- 
dren. 

3. The children have almost no basis for the work. 

4. It ignores the child's vocabulary of oral words, 
the real basis for beginning reading work. 

5. The names of the letters are a real hindrance 
to the child, since they do not make the oral word at all 
when put together. 

6. The practice of having children to spell out 
words leads to halting, hesitating habits of reading. 

7. It gives children a dislike for school work as a 
whole. 



BASIS AND STEPS IN READING. 49 

That the names of the letters are a real hindrance 
to the child appears from the fact that what he has 
reason to expect of them is not true at all ; namely, that 
the names of the letters when put together make the 
oral word. If the names of the letters composed the 
oral words, Katie, before, benign, enemy, and decay 
would be spelled as follows: Kt, b4, b9, nme, dk. 

Since there is no educationist of note to be found 
who advocates the Alphabet Method, one would not 
think that it is in use extensively at present. It, how- 
ever, is still used in many schools by teachers not ac- 
quainted with current approved methods of teaching. 

The Synthetic Word Method. — The term synthetic 
means put together, from synthesis, a uniting or putting 
together. So from the significance of the term, one 
would make the inference that something is put to- 
gether to make up the word. And this inference is 
right, for words are built up of the sounds which com- 
pose them, according to this method. The oral word is 
thus built up, and, since the child is well acquainted 
with the oral word, he readily associates it with the 
printed or written word. 

This method with slight variations has been given 
all the following names: Synthetic Word Method, 
Phonic Method, Phonetic Method, and Pollard Method. 

The first line of work according to this method con- 
sists in teaching the children the sounds which the var- 
ious letters of the alphabet symbolize. Since the vowels 
and some of the consonants symbolize more than one 
sound, the diacritical marks are used with the letter. 
The names of the letters are not learned at first, but 



50 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

some play name is given them and the teacher and chil- 
dren play that the letter under consideration says so 
and so — ^the sound which it is the symbol of. Thus a is 
called an old man, and the teacher and children play 
that he says a e; a is called the little lamb, and the 
teacher and children play that it says a, a, a; a is called 
the little old woman and they play that she says ah, 
ah, ah; b is called the baby and they play that it says 
the b sound; p is called a steamboat; f is called a cat; 
V is called a bug ; d is called a dove ; z is called a bumble 
bee; g is called a frog; r is called a dog; th is called a 
goose; eh is called a locomotive, etc. All the symbols 
of the various sounds are thus given play names, and 
the children learn the sounds of each symbol in play. 

A second line of work according to the synthetic 
word method is to teach the children the names of the 
letters. After the sounds of the symbols have been well 
learned as indicated, the teacher says to the children, 
''Now we have just been playing that this (a) is an old 
man. Would you like to know its real name?" The 
children will want very much to know, and will say so. 
And the reason that they will want to know is, that 
naturally, as soon as the child knows the meaning of 
anything, he wants to know its name. The children in 
this case know the sounds the letters symbolize, which 
is the meaning of the letters and their only meaning, 
and so naturally want to know their right names. The 
teacher then gives them the right name of the letter or 
letters, and thereafter calls it by the right name when 
speaking of it with the children. The children are also 
encouraged to call it by the right name when speaking 



BASIS AND STEPS IN READING. 51 

of it. Thus they learn the name without any great 
special effort ; that is, incidentally. 

The names of the other letters of the alphabet are 
taught in a way similar to that of teaching the name of 
a. In such cases as the vowel a, the children are told 
that a, a, a, a, etc., are different members of the a fam- 
ily; and similarly with o, e, i, etc. 

A third line of work according to the synthetic 
word method is to teach the children to recognize printed 
or written words at sight as the symbols of the oral 
words. 

The procedure is as follows : The teacher writes or 
prints the sentence. The hat is on the box, or some other 
little easy sentence on the board, marks it diacritically 
and asks the children to tell what it is. Each word is 
worked out first, then the whole story is asked for. 
If any trouble arises in working out the words, the 
teacher calls for the sound of each symbol separately. 
But it is much better to get the whole word, if possible. 
For instance, if the child could not pronounce the first 
word, ''The," at sight, the teacher would write ''Th" 
on the board, mark it, and ask for its sound; then for 
the sound of " e, " then for the whole word. This makes 
it very easy for the child, since he well knows what 
sounds the various symbols represent. 

After the child reads this first sentence, the teacher 
puts a second one on the board using several of the 
old words but also some new ones; then another sen- 
tence, and another, gradually introducing new words; 
then simple pieces of discourse containing mainly old 
words, but always introducing some new ones. 



52 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

After a little, pieces of discourse gradually in- 
creasing in complexity are used, then the book is put 
into the hands of the pupils, and they move rapidly 
forward. 

Merits and Demerits. — The Synthetic Word Method 
of teaching beginning reading has both its advantages 
and its disadvantages. The following may be consid- 
ered points in its favor: 

1. It takes advantage of the play instinct in chil- 
dren, and is thus very interesting to them. 

2. It uses the basis consisting of a vocabulary of 
oral words which the children have when they come to 
school. 

3. It tends to habits of clear, distinct enunciation 
and correct pronunciation, and makes the children self- 
helpful in pronunciation. 

4. It makes the teaching of the diacritical marks 
easy. 

The following may be noticed as objections to this 
method : 

1. It is unnatural for the child to build up words 
from sounds ; he learns them naturally as wholes first. 

2. It leads the learner to make the association be- 
tween the oral word and the printed or written word, 
while he should be making the association between the 
written or printed word and the idea of which it is the 
symbol. 

3. He starts to read discourse in which the dia- 
critical marks are used, which is not the kind he will 
be called upon to read throughout his life, and there is 
some loss of time and energy in making the change. 



BASIS AND STEPS IN READING. 53 

4. It is said to make poor spellers. 

5. It tends to give children the idea that pro- 
nouncing words is reading whether they know what 
they mean or not. This does much to defeat the very 
purpose of reading, skill in interpretation and skill in 
oral expression. 

It should, however, be said that many good teachers 
use this method in teaching beginning reading, and have 
remarkable success. Others succeed better by some 
other method. 

A few years ago the Synthetic Word Method was 
very popular in many sections of the country, but re- 
cently it seems to have been losing in popularity and 
favor. 

The Sentence Method. — By this method the child is 
taught whole sentences as symbols of thoughts. The 
child is in some way stimulated to think and to indicate 
to the teacher w^hat his thought is. The teacher then 
places on the board the sentence which is the symbol of 
the thought and endeavors to lead the child to asso- 
ciate the thought and the symbol. The following will 
indicate the procedure: 

For instance, the teacher asks the child with what 
he plays, and he says, "I play with a ball." The 
teacher then says, ' ' I shall place on the board what you 
said," or something to that effect, and writes or prints 
on the board "I play with a ball." The teacher then 
asks the child to tell the story on the board. A second 
question is then asked; it may be, "What is the color 
of your ball?" The child answers "My ball is red." 
The teacher again says ' ' I shall place on the board what 



54 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

you said ' ' and writes or prints ' ' My ball is red. ' ' Then, 
as before, the teacher asks the child to tell the story. 
The teacher thus continues with sentences containing 
mainly old words but gradually introducing new ones 
till the child becomes familiar with a few sentences. 

This method of teaching beginning reading is put 
pretty plainly by saying the teacher engages the chil- 
dren in some interesting conversation and then uses 
their sentences as material to start with in the reading 
work. 

After a time the sentences with which the learner 
is familiar are broken up into their parts, the words, 
and the learner is drilled on them separately. 

There are some advantages claimed for the sentence 
method as well as some objections urged against it. 

The following are claimed as its points of merit : 

1. It gives the learner's mind a tendency to grasp 
sentences as wholes in reading. 

2. It tends to give the ability to interpret readily, 
and to communicate easily in reading. 

This may all be said by saying it tends to make 
light readers. Some persons in reading interpret the 
selection word by word and are, for that reason, called 
heavy readers. Others grasp whole sentences, and some 
even whole paragraphs, in one act of the mind in inter- 
preting discourse and are, for this reason, called light 
readers. That is to say, some use many times as much 
energy in reading as others use. It is claimed, and 
perhaps with some degree of validity, that the sentence 
method tends to make light readers. The following are 
some objections to the sentence method : 



BASIS AND STEPS IN READING. 55 

1. It is too hard for the child to learn sentences as 
wholes at the start. 

2. It leads the child to make an indirect associa- 
tion between the symbol, the sentence, and the thought, 
while the association should be direct. This appears 
from the fact that the teacher gets the child to use the 
oral sentence, and tells him she is going to place on the 
board what he said or something of that kind. Thus 
the child must make the association between the oral 
sentence and the written or printed sentence, if he 
makes any association. But it is very desirable to have 
the association made between the written or printed 
sentence and the thought. 

3. The sentence which the child learns as a whole 
is not what he will find used very often as he learned 
it throughout life. But if he learns a word as a whole, 
he will very frequently find it in after life just 
as he learned it. 

4. The sentence method furnishes poor opportun- 
ities for making the association between the symbol and 
the idea or thought strong. But, if this association is 
not made strong, the child will not remember what the 
nords and sentences are; that is, he will not recognize 
them at sight, the thing aimed at. 

The Wo7^d Method. — This method is also frequently 
called the analytic word method. The term, analytic 
word method, is significant of the fact that according to 
this method words are learned as wholes at first and are 
analyzed later. Thus according to the word method 
written or printed words are taught as wholes as sym- 
bols of their ideas, or as to their meaning. After a 



56 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

number of words have been taught as wholes these same 
written or printed words are analyzed into the parts 
which sjonbolize the parts of the oral words — the 
sounds. 

Definite Procedure. — The first thing to be done m 
teaching reading by the analytic word method is to 
teach the children a vocabulary of written or printed 
words as symbols of their ideas. Various teachers teach 
with good success a vocabulary of from fifty to seventy- 
five words in this first work. The following will indi- 
cate in general the way it is done: 

Let the lesson be to teach the children the written 
or printed word, nest, as a symbol of the idea, nest. 
The teacher presents an actual nest to the children and 
asks them to hold up their hands, if they know what 
it is; then a second nest is presented, and a third, and 
thus several. The teacher then places the word on the 
board calling the children's attention to it by saying 
**I am going to make a word on the blackboard which 
makes me think what I have in my hand. ' ' The teacher 
holds a nest in her hand in the meantime. The children 
are then asked if they know what the word is. They 
are then requested to find it in other places on the 
board, on charts, etc. They find it in other places, for 
the teacher has just put it in various places in large 
and small form, and in various colored chalk. The 
children thus make the association between the word and 
the idea it symbolizes. The steps the learner's mind 
takes in the above process are as follows: 

1. The advance of the learner's mind in rethinking 
the old idea. 



BASIS AND STEPS IN READING. 57 

2. The advance of the learner's mind in adjusting 
itself to the symbol — the word. 

3. The advance of the learner's mind in making 
the association between the idea and the symbol. 

In the first of these steps the learner rethinks the 
old idea; that is, thinks it again. It is old to him, 
because he learned what a nest is sometime in his life 
before he came to school. The object of having the 
actual nest before him is to get him to rethink the old 
idea in a concrete, natural way. Several nests are pre- 
sented in order that the idea may be general; that is, 
apply to any nest, instead of just one particular nest, 
which might result from presenting but one nest. 

In the second step the child looks at the symbol, the 
word, gives his attention to it, and this is what is meant 
by adjusting his mind to the symbol. In leading the 
child to take this step and the next the word should 
be in several places on the board in different sizes and 
in different colors, and in other places; as on a chart, 
in the book, on cards, etc., in order that the symbol 
may be understood to be general; that is, the symbol 
common to any object of that class. 

While all three of these steps are important, the 
last is the one upon which depends the value of all 
three. It is very desirable that the learner recognize 
the word at sight ever after having had this lesson. 
This he will surely do if the association is made strong 
enough. But if the association is not made strong, he 
is likely to forget the word before the next recitation. 
Thus special pains must be taken to have the associa- 



58 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

tion strongly made. This may be done in the following 
three ways: 

1. The teacher has the children to point out with 
a pointer the words on the board which say what she 
has, the teacher handling the object. 

2. The teacher has the child to bring the object 
when she points to the symbol, the word. 

It will appear that this is having the child to make 
the association in two ways : first, from the idea to the 
symbol; secondly, from the symbol to the idea. Both 
ways are important. 

3. The teacher has the child find the symbol, the 
word, on cards, on charts, and in books. 

It is to be noted that in this work the oral word is 
not used until the very close of the lesson. Then some 
child is called upon to tell what the oral word is; that 
is, pronounce it. The purpose of thus keeping the oral 
word in the background is, that the child may get into 
the habit of making the association direct between the 
written or printed symbol and the idea, and not indirect 
between the written or printed symbol and the oral 
word, and from the oral word to the idea. Thus if when 
the child sees the word, nestf the idea, nest, comes first 
into his mind, it is because the association has been 
made direct between the idea and the written or printed 
symbol. But if, when he sees the word, nest, the oral 
word comes first into his mind and then the idea, nest, 
it is because the association between the written or 
printed word and the idea has been made indirect. 

Two evils are said to grow out of making the asso- 
ciation between the written or printed word and the oral 



BASIS AND STEPS IN READING. 59 

word, and then between the oral word and the idea. 
They are as follows : 

1. It tends to make heavy, slow, hesitating readers. 
It wastes energy. 

2. It tends to give children the habit of using the 
vocal organs — working the lips, etc. — in silent reading. 

Both of these habits are to be avoided as undesira- 
ble, the second being very annoying in school work. 

Adjectives and Verbs. — The teaching of the word, 
nest, is a fair example of how nouns are to be taught in 
this first reading work. Adjectives and verbs are how- 
ever not quite so easily taught, yet they are in general 
to be taught in the same way. That is to say, the learner 
is to be led to take the following three steps: 1. The 
rethinking the old idea. 2. Adjusting his mind to the 
symbol, the written or printed word. 3. Making the 
association strong between the idea and the symbol. The 
hard point in teaching these words is that of getting 
the child to rethink the old idea without giving him 
undue help. In some cases he may be led to take this 
step by the teacher's performing the action or having 
some child perform it and then asking for the word. 
For instance the teacher might run, and then ask how 
many know the word which says what she did. 

The, A, An, Is, Can, On, In, etc. — Such words as 
these are the ones which are most difficult to teach well 
in this work in reading. The point of difficulty is in 
getting the learner to rethink the old idea. The follow- 
ing will indicate what is probably the best way to pro- 
ceed with such words: Assuming that the child knows 
the words, hat, and black, they having been taught to 



60 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

him before as indicated above, the teacher asks the child 
to tell her the color of the hat, and the child responds, 
''The hat is black." The teacher says "I shall place 
on the board the words which make me think what you 
said" and writes the sentence on the board. Some 
child is then asked to point out the old words, hat, and 
black. The children are then asked to tell the new 
words. In most cases they will thus get the new words 
at once. If they do not do so readily, the teacher asks 
some child to tell the story again while the others watch. 
Then some child is asked to tell what the first word, 
*'The," says, then the next, and the next, and the next. 

This is kept up until the children have well in 
mind the and is. Then this sentence. The hlack hat is 
on the box, may be obtained from the children by plac- 
ing the black hat on the box, and by placing some dif- 
ferently colored hat on a chair. The teacher places the 
sentence on the board and thus teaches the word, on, 
in the same general way as the and is were taught. 

It will be noticed that this way of teaching is a 
combination of the word and the sentence method. 

The Rational Method, or Ward Method. — Just at 
present a way of teaching reading called the ''Rational 
Method" or the "Ward Method" is attracting much 
undeserved attention. Under its catchy advertising 
denomination, "Rational Method," it seems to have cast 
a spell over many teachers to such an extent that they 
seem for the time bereft of common pedagogical sense. 

As a matter of fact the so-called "Rational 
Method," is very irrational in a number of ways, and 
there is need for some one emphatically to say so. 



BASIS AND STEPS IN READING. 61 

Instead of its being a new method, as many believe, 
it is simply a combination of the Word Method and the 
Phonic Method, with most of the Word Method left out 
and the Phonic Method run mad. 

Many irrational schemes are irrational because of 
being one-ideaed, and this is the sad affliction of this 
irrational method. It puts it mildly to say it makes a 
hobby of phonetic work in reading. It carries it to a 
distressing extremity; if not ad infinitum, at least ad 
nauseam. 

If to read well, it were necessary only to pronounce 
words mechanically regardless of whether they are in 
the child's oral vocabulary or whether he gets a shade 
of meaning from them, then the ' ' Ward Method ' ' would 
be the summum honum in teaching reading. 

In brief, this method does three very bad things in 
teaching children reading: 

1. It early makes the child mechanical in the pro- 
nunciation of words by marking diacritcally all the new 
words. 

2. It gives the learner the wrong idea of what 
reading is. He gets the notion that pronouncing words 
is reading. It does this regardless of the frantic eft'orts 
of those who teach this way to prevent it. 

3. It makes loud, boisterous, monotonous, mechani- 
cal oral readers, because of the emphasis it places upon 
the form to the neglect of adequate interpretation. 

Fixing the Vocahidary in Mind. — One of the points 
which needs special emphasis in teaching the child a vo- 
cabulary of written and printed words is fixing each 
word well in the learner's mind as he proceeds. Unless 



62 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

this is done the rest of the work is pretty much of a 
failure. There are two good ways of doing this, as 
follows: 1. A list of the words taught is kept in some 
convenient place on the board and reviewed from day 
to day. In this review the teacher may ask for a word 
and have some child point it out with a pointer, or the 
teacher may point to the word and ask some child to 
pronounce it. The former is perhaps the better way. 
2. The second way to fix the vocabulary in the child's 
mind is to combine the words learned into small pieces 
of discourse, and use these pieces of discourse for drill 
in oral reading. 

Both of these ways are based upon the principle 
of mind, two or more things held together in conscious- 
ness the most often are, other things equal, the most 
strongly associated. 

Print and Script. — The question. Is print or script 
better to begin with ? always comes up for consideration 
in studying method in reading. Some writers on meth- 
odology have made much of this point as if it were a 
very vital question in teaching primary reading. It is 
not a question of such tremendous importance as some 
would have us believe, and there is no help in exagger- 
ating it. Perhaps the most satisfactory view is, that it 
makes little difference whether the teacher begins with 
script or print so long as she is skillful with the one 
which she does use. Many good and successful teachers 
prefer to begin with the script, but the same is true with 
respect to the print. There are points of advantage in 
either way. The following points seem to favor begin- 
ning with print: 



BASIS AND STEPS IN READING. 63 

1. The most of the learner's reading in life will 
be the reading of print, and so this is the most important 
for him to learn. 

2. If the learner first learns script he must soon 
change from script to print, which will offer some 
difficulty and some loss of time and energy. 

Beginning with script has the following to be said 
in its favor: 

1. It is easier for the teacher and makes the busy 
work more easy to conduct. 

2. It tends to make equally good readers of print 
and script. 

The argument that children should not begin to 
learn printed words because we do not want to make 
printing presses of them has nothing in it. It does not 
follow at all that the child must learn to make printed 
words because he learns to recognize them at sight. 

Personally I prefer to begin with the print for the 
first dozen or so lessons, then introduce the script and 
carry the two along side by side. 

Reading Simple Pieces of Discourse. — Just as soon 
as enough written or printed words have been well 
learned, small pieces of discourse are formed from them 
for the children. These pieces are used for reading les- 
sons to get the children started. Then a little later they 
begin reading from the chart or first reader. The inter- 
pretation of these pieces of discourse is easy, and the 
thoughts they express are usually of no permanent 
value, but the oral expression is very important. The 
child here begins to form his habits of oral expression, 
and whether he ever becomes a good reader or not de- 



64 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

pends very largely upon these habits. However much 
trouble it may be, the learner must not be permitted 
to form habits of halting, hesitating, monotonous oral 
expression. This is a critical period in the teaching of 
primary reading. 

Analytic Work. — It will be kept in mind that we 
are studying what is called the Analytic Word Method 
of teaching primary reading. But up to the present 
place no analytic work has been studied. This is not, 
however, because no analytic work should be done in 
the actual work in reading up to this place, but because 
in the study the points must be taken consecutively, an^i 
the topic. Analytic Work, has just now been reached. 

The analysis work, which is to be carried along 
with much emphasis through the entire preparatory 
stage of reading and further if necessary, consists in 
separating the oral words corresponding to the written 
and printed words which the child has been studying, 
into their parts, the sounds, and the association of these 
sounds with their symbols ; that is, with the correspond- 
ing parts of the written or printed word. 

The nature of this work will appear from the fol- 
lowing: The child has learned the printed and written 
word, box, as a symbol for an idea, in the way prev- 
iously shown. The teacher writes the word on the 
board and has some child to pronounce it, thus getting 
the oral word before the class. The children are then 
led to see the first sound in the oral word and to make 
it; then the second, and the third; next, they are led 
to see that h symbolizes the first sound; o, the second, 



BASIS AND STKPS IN READING. 65 

and X, the third sound. The steps taken by the mind 
of the learner with each word are as follows : 

1. The advance of the learner's mind in rethink- 
ing the oral word. 

2. The advance of the learner's mind in analyzing 
the oral word into its sounds. 

3. The advance of the learner's mind in analyzing 
the written word into the parts corresponding to the 
sounds. 

4. The advance of the learner's mind in making 
the association between the sounds and their symbols. 

These steps are of course pretty general. A close 
analysis would break up each one into several smaller 
steps. But these four are the general steps in the 
analysis of any word. 

First Step. — The way the children are led to take 
the first step is as follows: the word is written on the 
board, and the class is asked how many know it. Some 
one of the children is selected to pronounce it. The test 
of his rethinking the oral word is his ability to pro- 
nounce it. 

Second Step. — The analysis of the oral word into 
its sounds is a step of some difficulty with the first few 
words, but offers little difficulty thereafter. Perhaps 
the best way to proceed at first is for the teacher to 
analyze the oral word into its sounds and have the chil- 
dren watch and give the analysis by imitation. This 
will probably be necessary with only a few words, for 
the children gain in ability very rapidly in this kind of 
work. Soon they are able to give the analysis by them- 
selves. 



66 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

Third and Fourth Steps. — The third and fourth 
steps may best be taken together. In these steps the 
child is led to see that certain parts of the written word 
symbolize the different sounds in the oral word. The 
teacher asks him what he thinks says the first sound in 
the oral word box; what, the second; and what the 
third, the teacher producing the sounds in order. He 
infers that h symbolizes the first sound in the oral word ; 
0, the second; and x, the third. The teacher tells him 
this is right and thus gives him a start. He soon gains 
much in such work by persistent and systematic prac- 
tice. 

Time of Doing the Analytic Worh. — This analytic 
work may well be begun almost from the first; that is, 
as soon as the child has learned a dozen or so words as 
symbols of their ideas; and it should be carried on 
through the entire first stage of reading with consider- 
able emphasis, at the least. It will probably be found 
highly advantageous to do a good deal of it at various 
places through the second stage of reading. 

The Purpose of the Analytic Work. — The analytic 
work is an extremely important kind of work in teach- 
ing reading, and a kind of work that is not generally 
well enough done. Its importance is manifest in the 
following purposes of it: 

1. It makes the learner self-help ful in the pronun- 
ciation of new words. 

2. It enables him, to a large extent, to work out 
the new words with respect to pronunciation as he 
comes to them in his reading lessons. 

3. It helps the learner to form the habit of distinct 



BASIS AND STEPS IN READING. 67 

enunciation, and correct pronunciation in oral reading 
and speaking. 

4. It enables the learner to form these habits, to 
a large extent, from the relations of the letters in the 
words and sentences, and not by the use of the dia- 
critical marks or the dictionary. 

Learning the Alphabet. — When and how may the 
names of the letters best be taught ? is a question worthy 
of some attention. It is safe to say that there is no good 
reason for teaching them till the learner has some use 
for them. And the learner has no use for them until 
he knows their meaning. This, however, he knows as 
soon as he knows the sound the letter symbolizes, for the 
sound the letter symbolizes is its meaning. Then it 
appears that the proper place to teach the letter names 
is in connection with the analytic work. The following 
will illustrate: 

When in the analytic work with the word, hox, for 
instance, the learner points to & as symbolizing the first 
sound, as symbolizing the second sound, and x as 
symbolizing the third sound, the teacher asks him if he 
would like to know their names. He will want to know 
their names now, since he has their meaning. The 
teacher tells him their names and thereafter uses them 
when she has occasion to do so. The same process, in 
substance, is carried out in teaching other words as in 
teaching box. This, it will be observed, is the way the 
child naturally learns all names. 

In this way the child learns the letter names with- 
out any special effort; that is incidentally as he needs 
them. After having learned them in this way, he is 



68 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

drilled upon them arranged alphabetically . He will 
need to know them alphabetically in order to use with 
facility dictionaries, indexes, catalogues, time tables, 
etc., throughout his life. 

Teaching the names of the letters in this way is in- 
finitely better than teaching them by rote, the time- 
honored way. 

Working Out New Words as to Pronunciation. — In 
taking up new lessons for study in the first stage of 
reading, and before the child has learned to use the dic- 
tionary well, in the second stage words new to the chil- 
dren with respect to pronunciation will be met with, and 
the right way to deal with these words has been a prob- 
lem not solved by most teachers. It is safe to lay down 
the law, the work must be of such a character as to lead 
the learners to do the work for themselves and to make 
them self-helpful in so far as possible, in dealing with 
these words. Work of the following character will do 
this to a large extent: in general, the learner is to be 
led to work out the pronunciation of the new words by 
seeing old ones or parts of old ones whose pronuncia- 
tion he knows, in the new words. For instance, agOf 
things, called, loved, and blue-bell are the new words 
in an advance reading lesson. The children have al- 
ready had the words, a, go, think, running, call, played, 
love, has, blue and bell. So if the children can be led to 
put together, a and go; th, ing and s; call and ed; 
love and d; blue and bell, they will have the pronuncia- 
tion of the new words. The child, however, will not do 
this without lessons leading him into the habit of 
doing so. 



BASIS AND STEPS IN READING. 69 

In pursuit of this idea the teacher makes some such 
assignment as the following to the children: 

1. '^ Study the lesson through carefully and make 
a list of all the new words and all the old ones you can 
not pronounce." 

2. *'See how many you can work out the pro- 
nunciation of by hunting for old words or parts of old 
words in them." 

3. ''Make a list of words which you think will 
help in pronouncing the words you can not pronounce." 

Such an assignment as this is good for the follow- 
ing three reasons: 

1. It gives the learner something definite to do in 
studying the new words. 

2. It tends to lead the child into the habit of help- 
ing himself in pronouncing new words. 

3. It leads the learner into the habit of seeing the 
old in the new, thus reviewing the old in the very best 
way while acquiring the new. 

If the children do not have the pronunciation of 
the words worked out, and they will not ordinarily have 
aU worked out, the teacher places one of the words on 
the board, and asks if any one can see anything old in 
it. If they do not, the teacher writes some old word on 
the board which will give them a start and so on until 
all the word is worked out; then the next word, and 
the next till all the words have been pronounced by the 
children. 

The new words the children meet are of two kinds : 
1. Those that can be pronounced by analogy, such 
as things^ called, mother, etc. 



70 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

2. Those that can not be pronounced by analogy, 
such as through, women, tough^ etc. 

The first class are best taught as indicated above; 
that is, by leading the learner to see old words or parts 
of old words in them. 

The second class are best taught in the same way 
as the, is, can, a, and an were taught; that is, by a com- 
bination of the word and sentence methods. 

Use of Dictionary. — The learner is taught to use 
the dictionary as soon as possible, in his reading work. 
The object of doing this is that he may early help him- 
self in getting the meaning and pronunciation of new 
words which he meets. But too early attempt to do 
this is not fruitful. Children usually do not use the 
dictionary advantageously before the fourth or fifth 
year of school. In order to use the dictionary well, the 
child must know the diacritical marks. 

Diacritical Marks. — Diacritical marks are charac- 
ters which indicate the sounds the various letters sym- 
bolize when used in words. They are the macron ( — ), 
the breve (v^), the caret (^), the dieresis (")> the semi- 
dieresis ( • ), the tilde (^), the cedilla ( >), the suspended 
bar (^). 

The teaching of the diacritical marks is work which 
belongs to reading and primary language and not to 
spelling. And the main purpose of such work is to give 
children the ability to use the dictionary intelligently 
and with facility in pronouncing and getting the mean- 
ing of words. 

If the analysis of words has been thoroughly done, 
the teaching of the diacritical marks offers little or no 



BASIS AND STEPS IN READING. 71 

difficulty. This work is begun near the beginning of 
the third year and is continued until it is mastered. 

The methods of teaching reading discussed apply 
mainly to the preparatory stage of reading. Of these 
the analytic word method combined with the sentence 
method is the most pedagogical. 

The Second Stage of Reading. — In the first stage 
of reading the emphasis is placed upon oral expression. 
The greatest effort is made to get the learner started in 
correct habits of oral expression. The pieces of dis- 
course dealt with are not, as a rule, important because 
of the value of the thought they symbolize. 

In the second stage of reading the emphasis is 
placed upon the interpretation of the discourse; that is, 
the greatest effort is made to give the learner skill in 
getting the thought and feeling the discourse symbolizes. 
And the discourse dealt with in the main is important 
because of the value of the thought and feeling it ex- 
presses. 

Symbolic and Didactic Discourse. — In the second 
stage of reading both symbolic and didactic discourse 
are dealt with, and thus their nature is to be studied 
in method in reading. 

Didactic discourse, also called scientific discourse, 
sets forth truth directly. For instance, if one should 
say that that man is irritable, ferocious, and cruel, the 
characteristics of the man are set forth directly and the 
sentence is a little example of didactic discourse. But 
if one should say that that man is a tiger, the charac- 
teristics of the man are set forth indirectly by means 



72 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

of a type, and the sentence is a small example of sym- 
bolic discourse. The tiger is the symbol, or type. 

Symbolic discourse, also called literary discourse, 
is that kind of discourse which sets forth truth indi- 
rectly by means of a symbol, or type. The following 
will illustrate the two kinds: 

Whenever a person desires anything very much in- 
deed but finds out certainly he can not have it, he im- 
mediately begins to see the undesirable characteristics 
of it. He begins to under-estimate it. This is the 
human soul's way of recovery after disappointment. 

The above is purely didactic. 

Once upon a time a fox saw some ripe luscious 
grapes growing upon a vine, and he jumped towards 
them again and again with the exertion of all his 
strength in his effort to get them. At length tired out 
with his useless labor, he said, as he was departing, ' ' they 
are sour anyhow and I would not pick them up if I 
should find them in the road." 

The above is purely symbolic. 

''Excelsior," ''Evangeline," "The Great Stone 
Face," and "The Golden Touch" are other examples of 
symbolic discourse. 

Steps in Symbolic Discourse. — In mastering a piece 
of symbolic discourse as a reading lesson evidently the 
first thing the learner meets with is the language, whose 
mastery is the first step. The language directly reveals 
the picture, or symbol, the mastery of which is the 
second step. The symbol suggests the leading thought, 
or theme, whose mastery is the third step. A fourth step 
is the mastery of the adaptation of the symbol to the 



BASIS AND STEPS IN READING. 73 

theme. And the last step is the oral reading of the 
selection. Thus every reading lesson which deals with 
symbolic discourse is like every other one in that the 
mind takes the following steps in mastering it : 

1. The mastery of the language. 

2. The mastery of the symbol, or picture. 

3. The mastery of the leading thought. 

4. The mastery of the adaptation of the symbol 
to the leading thought. 

5. The adequate oral expression of the thought 
and feeling in the author's own words. 

The language is mastered in two ways: first, the 
meaning of the different words in the selection; sec- 
ondly, the pronunciation of the different words in the 
selection are to be got in mind. 

The second step, the mastery of the symbol, means 
that the details of the picture directly presented by the 
language are accurately and vividly held in mind. 
There are several terms used as synonyms for symbol. 
The terms, picture, type, embodiment, and conception, 
are thus all more or less in use. 

This second step is an important one in teaching 
reading. If the children are ever to learn to read care- 
fully so as to get what there is in a piece of discourse 
without going over it again and again, they must be 
held conscientiously to mastering the details of the 
picture or sjrtnbol. Many teachers fail sadly in teach- 
ing this second step well. 

Every selection which is organized and is well 
worth spending one's time on as a reading lesson has 
some leading thought around which all the subordinate 



74 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

thoughts cluster. This leading thought is the most im- 
portant thing in the selection. It is the end and all 
the rest of the selection is means. It is the message 
the selection bears to humanity, and the understanding 
of it is absolutely necessary to the correct interpretation 
of the selection. It is the key to the interpretation. 
Therefore, the mastery of the theme in teaching or 
learning a selection is a very important step, too. 

The adaptation of the symbol to the theme is its 
fitness to suggest the theme. Thus the various parts of 
the picture are chosen because they are good to suggest 
the theme and make it strong. For illustration, if one 
says a man is a donkey, he means that the donkey, the 
symbol, is well adapted to symbolize the stubbornness 
of the man, the leading thought. Again, if one wished 
to say very strongly that a certain man is deceitful, and 
thus should say that man is a hog, the symbol, hog, 
would not be adapted at all to the leading thought. In 
leading the learner in mastering the adaptation of the 
symbol to the theme opportunities present themselves 
in abundance for rare skill, tact, and artistic teaching. 

After the four steps studied above have been well 
taken the learner has well in mind the thought and feel- 
ing of the selection, and is thus in the proper attitude 
of mind to read well the selection orally. This he does 
as the last step. 

Steps in Didactic Discourse. — The steps the mind 
takes in mastering a piece of didactic discourse are not 
quite the same as those it takes in mastering a selection 
of symbolic discourse. Didactic discourse has no type, 
or symbol ; and since this is true, steps two and four in 



BASIS AND STEPS IN READING. 75 

dealing with symbolic discourse are absent in dealing 
with didactic discourse. And step three is not quite 
the same, for many pieces of didactic discourse do not 
have a central thought in any such true sense as sym- 
bolic discourse. Thus the third step is more the mastery 
of the thought in general than the mastery of a central 
thought. 

The mind thus in mastering selections of didactic 
discourse takes the following steps: 

1. The mastery of the language. 

2. The mastery of the thought. 

3. The oral expression of the thought and feeling 
in the author's words. 

Summary. — The following will in general summar- 
ize the steps in teaching reading, the method employed 
in the first stage being the analytic word method : 
I. First Stage. 

1^. A mastery of a vocabulary of words as sym- 
bols of their ideas. 

1". Steps with each word. 

1^. The advance of the learner's mind in 
rethinking the old idea. 

2^. The advance of the learner's mind in 
adjusting itself to the written or printed symbol. 

3^. The advance of the learner's mind in 
associating the symbol and the idea. 

2\ The interpretation and oral reading of small 
pieces of discourse made up from the words which the 
learner has in his vocabulary. 

3\ A line of analysis work. 
1-. Steps with each word. 



76 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

1^. The advance of the learner's mind in 
rethinking the oral word. 

2^. The advance of the learner's mind in 
analyzing the oral word into its sounds. 

3^. The advance of the learner's mind in 
analyzing the written word into the symbols of the 
sounds. 

4^. The advance of the learner's mind in 
associating the sounds with their symbols. 

4}. Teaching the names of the letters of the 
alphabet. 

5^. Teaching the diacritical marks. 
II. Second Stage. 

1^. The mastery of selections of sjrmbolic dis- 
course. 

IK Steps. 

1^. Mastery of the language. 
2^. Mastery of the type, or picture. 
3^. Mastery of the theme, or central 
thought. 

4^. Mastery of the adaptation of the type 
to the theme. 

5^. The adequate oral expression of the 
thought and feeling the discourse embodies in the words 
of the author. 

2^. The mastery of selections of didactic dis- 



course. 



V. Steps. 

1^. Mastery of the language. 
2^. Mastery of the thought. 
3^. The adequate oral reading. 



CHAPTER V. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Advantages. — Good teaching always demands a 
variety of concrete illustrations, and teaching not 
abounding in concrete illustrations is always found to 
lack much in forcefulness and effectiveness. Concrete 
illustrations make the thoughts stand out in clear relief 
and bring the desired thruths before the mind with 
such force and vividness that they are easily retained 
and reproduced. Therefore, for the help that comes 
from the study some concrete illustrations will be con- 
sidered in this chapter. 

EXCELSIOR. 

The shades of night were falling fast, 
As through an Alpine village passed 
A youth, who bore, mid snow and ice, 
A banner with the strange device. 
Excelsior! 

His brow was sad; his eye beneath 
Flashed like a falchion from its sheath, 
And like a silver clarion rung 
The accents of that unknown tongue, 
Excelsior! 

In happy homes he saw the light 

Of household fires gleam warm and bright; 



78 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

Above, the spectral glaciers shone, 
And from his lips escaped a groan, 
Excelsior! 

"Try not the Pass!" the old man said; 

"Dark lowers the tempest overhead. 
The roaring torrent is deep and wide!" 
And loud that clarion voice replied, 
Excelsior! 

^'Oh stay," the maiden said, "and rest 
Thy weary head upon this breast!" 
A tear stood in his bright blue eye. 
But still he answered with a sigh. 
Excelsior! 

^'Beware the pinetree's withered branch! 
Beware the awful avalanche!" 
This was the peasant's last Good-night, 
A voice replied, far up the height. 
Excelsior! 

At break of day, as heavenward, 
The pious monks of Saint Bernard 
Uttered the oft-repeated prayer, 
A voice cried through the startled air, 
Excelsior! 

A traveler, by the faithful hound, 
Half-buried in the snow was found. 
Still grasping in his hand of ice 
That banner with the strange device, 
Excelsior! 

There in the twilight cold and gray. 
Lifeless, but beautiful he lay, 
And from the sky, serene and far, 
A voice fell, like a falling star. 
Excelsior! 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 79 

The mind, if left to pursue its own course in mas- 
tering this selection will in general do two things ; first, 
it will read the selection through as a whole to get a 
general idea of it; secondly, it will study it through in 
detail taking the five steps before indicated in master- 
ing a selection of symbolic discourse. 

In the mastery of the language the meaning of the 
w^ords, Alpine, Excelsior, falchion, clarion, spectral, 
glaciers, lowers, avalanche, monks. Saint Bernard, etc., 
will be learned; also, the words, passed. Excelsior, 
Alpine, beneath, falchion, glaciers, pass, lowers, blue, 
etc., will be mastered as to pronunciation. 

In the mastery of the picture, or type, the youth 
with his various attributes, the mountains, the Alpine 
village, the banner, the happy homes, the glaciers, the 
old man, the tempest, the roaring torrent, the maiden, 
the pine-tree's withered branch, the avalanche, the 
peasant, the monks of Saint Bernard, etc., will be got 
well in mind in their proper relation. 

In the mastery of the theme the real meaning of 
this whole picture will be worked out. What is said 
in the selection is in all probability not literally true, 
but it points to a truth beyond the literal meaning. 
Longfellow is not simply telling about a rash young 
man who lost his life in climbing the Alps mountains. 
The selection bears a message to humanity and the 
picture, or type, suggests this message. Understanding 
and appreciating this message is what is meant by mas- 
tering the theme. 

In the mastery of the adaptation of the picture to 
the theme the reason for choosing a youth, for starting 



80 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

him through the village at night fall, for having him 
climb a mountain, and for having him lose his life will 
be shown. Also, the significance of the banner, the 
village, the maiden, the old man, the pass, the glacier, 
the torrent, the awful avalanche, the peasant, the monks, 
the falling voice, etc., will be shown as suggesting and 
emphasizing the theme. 

The oral reading of the selection is the last step 
and should be done carefully and conscientiously. If 
the other four steps have been well done the learner 
will be in the best possible attitude of mind for the 
practice in oral expression. 

The following is an assignment of such a character 
in general as to lead the learner in working through 
Excelsior as a reading lesson: 

1. Read the selection through as a whole very 
carefully and try to get a general idea of its meaning. 

2. Master the meaning and pronunciation of any 
unfamiliar words in the selection. 

3. Get in mind accurately the details of the pic- 
ture presented in this selection. 

4. What is the leading thought suggested in this 
selection? Give good reasons for your opinions. 

5. Why is a youth chosen? 

6. Enumerate the characteristics of the youth and 
tell why each is given. 

7. What is the significance of the happy homes? 
of the maiden? 

8. What is the significance of the lowering temp- 
est, roaring torrents, spectral glaciers, pine-tree's with- 
ered branch, and the awful avalanche? 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 81 

9. Why must the youth lose his life? 

10. What is the meaning of a voice that fell, like 
a falling star? 

11. Read orally the selection so as to express the 
meaning as you understand it. 

ERASTUS WREN'S VIRTUE. 

Erastus Wren was virtuous, in spirit and in letter, 
Was very virtuous and good, and daily growing better; 
And so immaculate was he, his neighbors, men and maids. 
They daily looked to see the wings sprout from his shoulder 
blades. 

He wouldn't eat rice; he wouldn't drink tea no more than 
he'd drink rum, 

For they were grown by heathen hands in darkest heathen- 
dom; 

He'd have no fellowship, he said, with men who thus 
behaved, 

Nor boom the industries of men so totally depraved. 

So he lived devoid of coffee and of cocoanuts and spice, 
And when his folks had lemon pie he never touched a slice; 
And he'd never taste of pudding; nay, unless, beyond a 

doubt, 
The cook deposed and guaranteed all nutmeg was left out. 

He wouldn't wear cotton shirts at all, because he was 
afraid 

The girls who work in cotton mills are sometimes under- 
paid; 

And once he thought he'd wear no wool, it gave him such 
a shock 

When he was told that one black sheep was found in every 
flock. 



82 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

And he never read the papers, and he never would begin, 
He said they reeked with wickedness, iniquity and sin; 
He wouldn't consult the dictionary, nor turn a leaf, not he, 
Because he said it held bad words no good man ought 
to see. 

There was no food for him to eat, no clothes for him to 
wear, 

No mental sustenance at all to suit him anywhere; 

And so he died, — ^the thing to do to round out his perfec- 
tion, — 

And not a living man arose to make the least objection.. 

Assignment. — The following is a general assign- 
ment adapted to lead the learner in mastering the 
above selection as a reading lesson : 

1. Read the selection carefully as a whole so as to 
get a general idea of it. 

2. Master any unfamiliar words in it both as to 
meaning and pronunciation. 

3. Get carefully in mind the characteristics of 
Erastus Wren. 

4. What is the leading thought of the selection? 
Give reasons for your opinion. 

5. Show the fitness of the picture to suggest the 
leading thought. 

6. Read the selection well orally. 

THE GOLDEN TOUCH. 

King Midas loved money very much, but not quite as 
well as he loved his little child, Mary. He thought yellow 
gold was the most beautiful thing he had ever seen, and he 
wanted to get as much of it as he could. Yet King Midas 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 83 

was a very rich man. He had boxes of this yellow money, 
and every day he looked at it for a long time. 

Once when he was looking at his gold, and thinking 
how beautiful it was, he saw a man standing by his side. 
"You are very rich. King Midas," said the man. "Well, 
yes; I have some money," said the King. "Do you care 
for more?" said the man. "Oh, yes," said King Midas, 
"I have only a very little, after all." "Well," said the 
man, "I shall be glad to help you. You make any wish 
you like, and I will grant it to you." King Midas thought 
a long time about this wish. What could he wish that 
would give him all the gold he wanted? At last he had a 
happy thought. He would wish that everything he should 
touch might turn to gold. Then he told the man his wish. 
How he laughed to hear that this rich old king still wanted 
so much more money! "At sunrise to-morrow morning," 
said the man, "your wish shall be granted. Then every- 
thing you touch shall turn to gold. I will give you the 
Golden Touch." 

The old king slept very little that night. As soon as 
the sun rose in the morning, he put his hand on his bed. 
His wish had been granted. There was his bed turning 
into yellow gold. When he put on his clothes, they, too, 
were gold. He took up a book on the table, and its cover 
became yellow, and he saw it had golden leaves. He went 
around the room and touched everything. Each turned to 
gold, and he thought his room was very beautiful. 

The King was very happy when he called little Mary 
to come and sit down and eat. As soon as the King 
touched his cup, it was gold. When he took a bite of fish, 
it, too, turned into gold, and he could not eat it. Then 
he tried to eat his egg and bread, but he could not. They 
were hard, yellow gold. Poor King Midas was very hun- 
gry! Everything was so beautiful, he was so rich, and yet 
he could not eat a bite! "What is the matter, father? 
Why don't you eat?" said little Mary. And she came and 
stood by his side. The King kissed her and said, "My 



84 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

dear little girl, go and eat your bread and milk." But 
what was the matter? The sweet, rosy face was now yel- 
low, and the soft, pretty curls were hard. The little girl 
he had loved so well. King Midas had turned into gold. 
"What have I done?" cried the poor king. "My dear little 
child! My Mary!" 

Just then he saw the same man standing at his side 
who had given him the Golden Touch. "Well, King Midas, 
how do you like the Golden Touch?" said the man. "I am 
so unhappy!" said the King, still looking at his little 
daughter. "Unhappy!" said the man. "Did I not do as 
I said I would? Do you wish more gold still?" "Oh, no, 
no!" said Midas. "I have lost what I loved more than 
gold, — my little child, Mary! Give her back to me alive 
and well!" "Ah," said the man, "which is better, the gift 
of the Golden Touch or a cup of cold water?" "The cup 
of water," said Midas. "And which is the better, the 
Golden Touch or your own little Mary as she used to be?" 
"My child, my dear child!" cried the king. "I would not 
give one of her little soft curls for all the gold you might 
give me!" "Tell me. King Midas," said the man, "shall 
I take away the Golden Touch?" "Oh, yes, indeed!" said 
the king. "You are a better man than you were yester- 
day, King Midas, and I will take away the gift of 
the Golden Touch, if you wish. Go to the brook just back 
of the garden and wash, and bring a cup of the same water 
back with you." 

The King lost no time in going to the brook. He 
jumped into the water, saying, "I do hope this will wash 
away the Golden Touch. Why did I ever want it I should 
like to know?" He filled the cup, and walked back to the 
house very fast. The first thing he did was to put water 
on his little Mary. Then the old rosy color came back, 
she laughed, and was his own loving child again. Then he 
went about the house and made everything as it was before 
he had turned it into gold. The old King never wished 
again for the Golden Touch. 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 85 

The above selection is a piece of symbolic dis- 
course, though it is not poetry. The steps in teaching 
it are the same in general as they are in teaching any 
other piece of symbolic discourse. 

With children of the third or fourth year these 
steps would have to be worked out slowly, many ques- 
tions being given by the teacher in bringing out each 
point. The following assignment is in general adapted 
to third or fourth grade pupils: 

1. Read the whole lesson through and tell me what 
you learned about it. 

2. Make a list of any new words or old ones 
whose meaning or pronunciation you do not know. 
Work out the pronunciation of as many as you can by 
hunting for old words or parts of old words in them. 
Make a list of old words which you think will help in 
pronouncing the new ones. 

3. How many persons are spoken of? What are 
their names? Tell all that is said about each one. 

4. Do you believe this story? Why? Does it tell 
us anything true ? What ? 

5. Why does this story have a king in it? Why 
gold? Why a man who could give the king the Golden 
Touch? Why a little girl? 

6. Read it orally so as to bring out the meaning 
as you understand it. 

ORCHARD LIFE. 

An orchard is an excellent place for Nature Study. 
Here live many kinds of tiny creatures, each kind with its 
own peculiar mode of life. Some have comparatively sim- 



86 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

pie life histories, merely eating and growing and finally 
laying eggs for another generation; but others undergo 
wonderful transformations, and still others exhibit an in- 
stinct that seems much like reason. And even those that 
appear to live the most humdrum existence are well worthy 
of careful study, for their lives are never as simple as they 
seem at first sight. 

By a study of orchard life there may be learned also 
much that is of immediate practical importance; some of 
the most dreaded insect pests infest fruit trees. A thor- 
ough knowledge of the ways of these depredators enables 
us to plan successfully methods of destroying them, and 
thus to prevent their ravages. 

In the mastery of the above selection there are in 
general three steps which the mind will take: 1. The 
mastery of the language. 2. The mastery of the thought. 
3. The oral expression of the thought in the words of 
the author. There are but these three steps because the 
selection is purely didactic. 

A question arises as to the nature of the discourse 
which should compose the text-book in reading. It is 
probably true that such books should be made up 
largely of literary, or symbolic discourse, and some even 
say that no other kind of discourse properly has a place 
in text-books on reading. But if it be true that the 
selections the learner reads in school are to be^ of the 
kinds he will read throughout his life, in order to fit 
him for all kinds of reading, a reading book must con- 
tain selections of both symbolic and didactic discourse. 

Sight Beading. — There is a proper place in teach- 
ing reading for what is called sight reading; that is, 
the reading of selections orally without having studied 
them beforehand. Work of this kind makes the learner 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 87 

ready in interpretation and in adequate oral communi- 
cation. A goodly quantity of this work may be done 
profitably in successful work in teaching reading. 

ABOU BEN ADHEIM. 

The selection following is a fine selection of sym- 
bolic discourse suitable to seventh or eighth year 
pupils : 

Abou Ben Adhem — may his tribe increase! 

Awoke one night from a deep dream of peace, 

And saw within the moonlight in his room, 

Making it rich and like a lily in bloom, 

An angel writing in a book of gold. 

Exceeding peace had made Ben Adhem bold; 
And to the presence in the room he said, 
"What writest thou?" The vision raised its head. 
And with a look made of all sweet accord, 
Answered, "The names of those who love the Lord." 

"And is mine one?" said Abou. "Nay, not so," 
Replied the angel. Abou spoke more low. 
But cheerly still; and said, "I pray thee, then. 
Write me as one that loves his fellow-men." 

The angel wrote and vanished. The next night 

It came again, with a great wakening light, 

And showed the names whom love of God had blessed; 

And, lo! Ben Adhem's name led all the rest. 



CHAPTER VI. 

COMMON ERRORS IN TEACHING READING. 

Opportunities for. — While reading has been in the 
school curriculum as long as any subject, and is as gen- 
erally taught as any school subject, contrary to the 
popular opinion, it is by no means an easy subject to 
teach well. The opportunities for errors are many, and 
because of this reading is generally taught much more 
poorly than is commonly supposed. 

The following are some of the most common errors : 

1. The use of the alphabet method in the first stage 
of reading. 

2. A lack of phonetic work. 

3. Insufficient interpretation. 

4. Too much aimless oral expression. 

5. Indefinite, general as&ignments. 

6. Not sufficiently differentiating reading from 
other school subjects. 

Each of these will be studied briefly for the help 
that comes from the study. 

The Use of the Alphabet Method. — It seems that at 
the present stage of educational advancement it should 
be needless to call attention to the fact that to begin to 
teach reading by having the children to learn the names 
of the letters of the alphabet by rote is exceedingly 
bad teaching and unpedagogical in the extreme. There 



COMMON ERRORS IN TEACHING READING. 89 

are, however, many teachers still teaching in this way, 
and many people who believe in it; also, many who do 
not even know there is a more natural, more interesting 
and better way. The objections to the alphabet method 
have been stated before, and though they should be 
rethought, they need not be repeated here. 

Lack of Sufficient Phonetic Work. — Neglect of car- 
rying forward a systematic line of work in analyzing 
oral words into their sounds, and of associating these 
sounds with their symbols is productive of the following 
bad results in teaching reading : 

1. It leaves children helpless in the pronunciation 
of new words. 

2. It leaves with children poor enunciation and 
bad habits of pronunciation. 

3. It makes the language of children in speaking 
and reading inartistic, slovenly, and difficult to under- 
stand. 

4. It makes the teaching of diacritical marks more 
difficult, and the use of the dictionary much less effec- 
tive. 

That this line of work is sadly neglected in the 
teaching of reading as commonly done in the schools 
of to-day is certainly true; and it is just as true that 
it is very much to be deplored. 

Insufficient Interpretation. — It is ever to be remem- 
bered that the main thing reading as a school subject is 
to do for the learner is to give him skill in interpreta- 
tion. Notwithstanding, it is often customary in teach- 
ing reading to go over a rather large amount of dis- 
course by having the children go through with it by 



90 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

pronouncing the words. This is called oral reading 
even when the learner does not get the thought himself, 
to say nothing of communicating it to some one else. 
This error gives the learner the wrong idea of the 
nature of reading as well as bad habits of reading. 

The criterion of success in learning to read is not 
the large quantity of discourse gone through. That 
which constitutes the criterion of success in learning to 
read is the power of ready, accurate interpretation and 
the ability of adequate oral communication in the 
author's words. And these may come from dealing with 
comparatively few pieces of discourse rightly taught, 
while they certainly will not come from a large number 
of selections poorly taught. 

Commonly teachers have no systematic plan of 
leading students into the interpretation of a selection. 
A few scattering questions are often asked and answered 
and this is deemed sufficient interpretation. The stud- 
ent usually or often gains no power from such work 
which he can take with him as a help in interpreting 
the next selection. Everyone can call to mind instances 
of such scattering, haphazard, half-hearted, aimless at- 
tempts at interpretation. 

Interpretation must be searching, systematic, and 
thorough, if the learner is ever to attain skill to any 
high degree in it. Good interpretation is fundamental 
to good oral reading. Pupils can not communicate 
thought and feeling when they do not have it to com- 
municate. A lack of thorough interpretation on the part 
of the learner before an attempt is made to read orally 



COMMON ERRORS IN TEACHING READING. 91 

is at the root the cause of most of the errors that occur 
in oral reading. 

Aimless Oral Expression. — Frequently the main exer- 
cise in the recitation in reading as commonly taught is 
a sort of aimless oral expression. In this work the chil- 
dren often do not enunciate distinctly, do not pronounce 
correctly, do not show an understanding of what they 
are reading, and race through in a most agonizing way 
to one who has in mind any proper standard of what 
reading should be. 

The exercise in oral reading should give the chil- 
dren the habit of disti7ict enunciation, correct pronun- 
ciation, and comprehensive oral expression. How often 
it sadly fails in all these as too frequently conducted. 

Bad Assignments. — An indefinite, general assign- 
ment is as a rule a bad error in teaching any subject. 
But this truth applies with unusual force to teachers of 
reading as the work is usually done. It is quite usual 
for teachers to say in assigning a lesson, *'Take the 
next lesson." With such an assignment students do not 
know how to take it, when to take it, nor where to take 
it, and are usually no better after taking than before 
taking. 

Students taught in this way usually read over the 
lesson, which does not take more than ten or fifteen 
minutes usually, and think they have it prepared for 
recitation. This, of course, leads to the almost universal 
complaint by teachers that they can not get their stud- 
ents sufficiently to study their lessons. The main cause 
of this trouble, it is seen, lies with the teacher, and is to 
be found in the poor assignments given. 



92 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

If the teacher will see to it that every assignment 
given in reading presents definite problems to be mas- 
tered, and conscientiously holds the children to the 
mastery of these problems, the difficulty in getting them 
to study their reading lessons sufficiently will dis- 
appear. 

Undifferentiated Work in Reading. — Many teachers 
have not clearly in mind just how reading is like and 
different from other school subjects. Because of this, 
spelling, literature, history, geography, biography, 
science, etc., are mixed with the reading recitation. To 
bring in more history, geography, etc., than is neces- 
sary to the interpretation of the selection under con- 
sideration is not only unnecessary, but scattering teach- 
ing. A teacher may wear out a selection in this way 
without doing very good teaching. 

Some unskillful teachers demand of their children 
a great deal of written work in connection with the 
reading lessons. This is usually done either to keep 
the children busy or to teach them to write. While 
some written work might possibly be justified in con- 
nection with the reading lesson, the vast amount re- 
quired in some schools, is physically, morally, and intel- 
lectually degenerating to the child. It requires no skill 
on the part of the teacher to set children to copying 
their reading lessons. Any ignoramus can do so much. 

In a similar way much committing to memory of 
selections is required of the children. This kind of 
work carried too far is not only unprofitable, but injur- 
ious to the child. The committing of some gems within 
the comprehension of the child is no doubt valuable. 



COMMON ERRORS IN TEACHING READING. 93 

But to demand such work of children just to keep them 
busy is very bad. There are three things to be kept in 
mind when asking children to commit to memory selec- 
tions. First, it must be certain that the selection is 
worth committing ; secondly, only a moderate amount of 
such work is of value. If too much is attempted, noth- 
ing will be well remembered; thirdly, this work must 
not be made a burden to the child. 



CHAPTER VII. 

NATURE AND ORIGIN OF NUMBER. 

Nature of Number. — ^We shall assume for the pres- 
ent in our studies in method in number that number 
is a spiritual, or mental, thing, and try hereafter to be 
consistent with this assumption; also, to find out 
whether this assumption is correct. In making this as- 
sumption three views of what number is must be con- 
sidered for the purpose of clearness. These views are 
as follows: 

1. There is the view that number is an inherent 
property of objects. 

2. There is the view that number is the mind's 
idea of the times one magnitude is applied in measuring 
another. 

3. And lastly, there is the view that the symbol 
of the mind 's idea of the times one magnitude is applied 
in measuring another is number. This view regards the 
figures the numbers. 

The first view, that number is an inherent property 
of objects, is that number, like weight, color, size, or 
form belongs to an object by nature and has always 
belonged to it from the beginning of its existence. Ac- 
cording to this view the child gets the number one 
from the observation of one object; the number two 
from the observation of two objects, etc. Number in this 



NATURE AND ORIGIN OF NUMBER. 95 

sense is qualitative, for it is the qualities of the object 
which constitute its oneness, twoness, etc. 

The second view of number, the mind's idea of the 
times one quantity is applied to another in measuring it, 
is that number grows out of measurement. According 
to this view two is the mind's idea that some quantity 
has been applied now, then again, to some other quan- 
tity in measuring it. Thus twenty feet means that the 
quantity one foot has been applied to a larger quantity 
twenty times in measuring it. 

The thirii view is that the figure, the word, or the 
letters; that is, the symbol is the number. Thus, 
twenty, XX, or 20 is the number according to this 
view. 

The Genesis of Numher. — ^By genesis of number is 
meant the mental process by which number originated. 
There is a time in the life of each person when he has 
no number ideas. His mind goes through a certain 
process in originating his number ideas and this process 
is the genesis of number. It is conceivable that what 
is true of each person in his infancy in this respect was 
true of the race in its infancy. So the process of the 
mind of the race in originating number ideas is also 
to be seen as the genesis of number. 

The steps in the genesis of number are as follows: 

1. The mind grasps a magnitude as a vague whole. 

2. The mind brings into consciousness a smaller 
magnitude of the same kind. 

3. The mind applies the smaller magnitude to the 
larger in measuring. 

4. The mind grasps the times the smaller magni- 



96 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

tude was applied to the larger in measuring it; that is, 
the mind grasps the number. 

Illustration. — If there Avere on a table before one 
a pile of sugar, cone shaped, eighteen inches high, the 
mind, first, because of its qualities could grasp it as a 
vague whole. The mind could see where the sugar and 
air, the sugar and the table meet, because the quality 
of the sugar is different from the quality of the table 
and the air. Not being satisfied with this vagueness, 
the mind proceeds to measure by bringing into conscious- 
ness a smaller quantity of the same kind, a pound. It 
then applies this to the larger quantity so many times^ 
and gets an idea of the times to which, say, for example, 
is given the name forty. It then has the definite idea 
forty pounds. 

Again suppose the number is 8 ft. The mean- 
ing is, a larger magnitude 8 ft. has been grasped as 
a vague whole; then the smaller magnitude 1 ft. has. 
come into consciousness, and has been applied eight 
times in the measurement of the larger magnitude. 

Or suppose the number is 5 boys. The meaning 
is the larger magnitude 5 boys as a whole has been 
grasped; then the smaller magnitude 1 boy has been 
grasped, and this magnitude has been applied five times 
times in the measurement of the larger magnitude. 

**The idea of number is not impressed upon the 
mind by objects even when these are presented under 
the most favorable circumstances. Number is a product 
of the way in which the mind deals with objects in 
the operation of making a vague whole definite.'^ 

Definition of Number. — From the above study the 



NATURE AND ORIGIN OF NUMBER. 97 

definition of number considered from the viewpoint of 
the psychology of number is obtained. This definition 
is as follows: 

Number is the mind's idea of the times one magni- 
tude is applied in measuring another. 

This seems the most helpful view of number 
whether one looks at it from the standpoint of the 
genesis of number or from the standpoint of the way the 
mind uses its number ideas in the practical affairs of 
life. It is, to say the least, the best working definition 
of number for one in the study of the method of teach- 
ing number. 

^'Number is the product of the mere repetition of a 
unit of measurement." 

Number is the abstract ratio of one quantity to an- 
other quantity of the same kind. — Newton. 

** Number is the ratio of one quantity to another 
quantity taken as a unit." 

Origin of Number Genesis. — In the study of the 
genesis of number the mind's natural mode of forming 
number ideas was seen. But the question here for 
study is. Why does the mind perform these activities? 
There is some necessity for the mind's performing the 
activities in the genesis of number or it would not do 
so. It is this necessity which is here to be discovered. 
The study of limitation gives some light upon the 
problem. 

Limitation. — ''If every human being could use at 
his pleasure all the land he wanted, it is probable that 
no one would ever measure land with mathematical ex- 
actness. There might be, of course — Crusoe like — a 



98 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

crude estimate of the quantity required for a given pur- 
pose; but there would be no definite numerical valua- 
tion in acres, rods, yards, feet. There would be no need 
for such accuracy. If food could be had without trouble 
or care, and in sufficiency for every-body, we should 
never put our berries in quart measures, count off eggs 
and oranges by the dozen, and weigh out flour by the 
pound. If everything that ministers to human wants 
could be had by every-body just when wanted, we should 
never have to concern ourselves about quantity. If 
everything with which human activity is in any way 
concerned were unlimited, there would of course be no 
need to inquire respecting anything whatever: What 
are its limits? How much is there of it? Even if a 
thing were not actually unlimited, if there were always 
enough of it to be had with little or no expenditure 
of energy, it would be practically unlimited, and hence 
would never be measured. 

It is because we have to put forth effort, because we 
have to take trouble to get things, that they are limited 
for us, and that it becomes worth while to determine 
their limits, to find out the quantity of anything with 
which human energy has to do." 

Limitation is the abstract idea that things do not 
exist in boundless quantities. It is fundamental to the 
mind's idea of magnitude. If there were no limitations 
upon things, magnitudes could not be measured, neither 
would there be any necessity for measurement. And if 
there was no necessity for measurement, there would 
be no need for number. 

Means and End. — The origin of number may be 



NATURE AND ORIGIN OF NUMBER. 99 

worked out also by considering the relation between 
means and end. "If all our aims were reached at the 
moment of forming them, without any delays, post- 
ponement, or countervening occurrences — if to realize 
an end we had only to conceive it — the necessity for 
measurement w^ould not exist, and there would be no 
such thing as number in the strictly mathematical 
sense. ' ' But the end to be realized is often difficult and 
complex so that distance in space, remoteness in time, 
and various hindering circumstances must be overcome. 
In adjusting the proper means to the end quantity, or 
magnitude, must be measured, and from this the need 
of number arises. 

''The conscious adjusting of means to end, par- 
ticularly such an adjusting as requires comparison of 
different means to pick out the fittest, is the source of 
all quantitative ideas." 

"Number arises in the process of the exact meas- 
urement of a given quantity with a view to instituting 
a balance, the need of this balance, or accurate adjust- 
ment of means to end, being some limitation." 

Quantity, or Magnitude. — The term quantity, or 
magnitude, as used in these studies means anything that 
can be measured. It may be space, time, and force, 
giving such units as miles, years, and tons. 

Conclusions. — From this study on the origin of 
number the following conclusions are reached: 

1. There is a limitation upon all things man de- 
sires. 

2. There is the necessity of adapting means to end 
in the affairs of man's life. 



100 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

3. Out of these conditions there arises the neces- 
sity of measurement. 

4. The necessity for accurate ideas of measure- 
ment is the origin of number. 

Note. — The quotations in this chapter are from 
The Psychology of Number, by McLelland and Dewey. 



CHAPTER VIII. 



STEPS IN NUMBER. 



Meaning of Steps. — It wiU be remembered that 
steps in any subject mean the mental activities which 
correspond to the various points of knowledge to be 
mastered in that subject; that steps are mental things, 
and that steps may be traced out in any subject as a 
whole or in any one lesson. Thus the steps in number 
are the mental activities employed in learning the var- 
ious truths of number. For instance, the mentality cor- 
responding to three, nine, and one hundred constitutes 
three steps. 

Points to Be Kept in Mind. — In studying the steps 
in method in number there are some fundamental truths 
to be kept constantly in mind because of the guidance 
they furnish. Some of these truths are as follows: 

1. Limitation transforms things into quantity, 
giving them a certain undefined magnitude, as size, 
weight, time. 

2. Vague wholes of quantity are changed into 
definite wholes of quantity by the process of measure- 
ment. 

3. The process of measurement takes place by 
means of units of quantity, the units being applied to 
the vague whole to be measured. 

4. Number arises in the mind from this process of 
measurement. 



102 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

5. Number is the mind 's idea of the times one quan- 
tity is applied in measuring another. 

Methods in Teaching Number. — The teacher who 
has been trying to keep up with educational progress 
for the last few decades has perhaps heard of the fol- 
lowing so-called methods of teaching number : 

1. The method of symbols. 

2. The fixed unit method; also called the method 
of things. 

3. The Grube method. 

4. The Speer method. 

All these methods are more or less widely used in 
various places even now and so are worthy of some 
study. 

The Method of Symbols. — This method is based 
upon the incorrect view that the symbols are the num- 
bers. It may be understood from the following descrip- 
tion of its plan of procedure: The teacher places a 
number of objects before the children and teaches them 
to count, one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, etc. 
Next the figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, etc., are taught 
by counting. When these are learned, little formal 
problems of addition, such as 4-f-5, 2+3+4, 
1+3+3, are taught; also, the rule for addition, more 
complex problems of addition, some writing numbers, 
and enumeration; little problems of formal subtraction, 
the rule for subtraction, and more complex problems of 
subtraction; and so with the formal processes of multi- 
plication and division ; and in a similar way on through 
number work. 

This method *'is illustrated in the old-fashioned 



STEPS IN NUMBER. 103 

ways — not yet quite obsolete — of teaching addition, 
subtraction, etc., as something to be done with 'figures,' 
and giving elaborate rules which might guide the doer 
to certain results called ' answers. ' It is little more than 
blind manipulation of number symbols." 

According to this method number is made "the 
science of figures and the art of memorizing and the 
rules for manipulating them." 

' ' While the method of symbols is still far too widely 
used in practice, no educationist defends it; all con- 
demn it. It is not then necessary to dwell upon it 
longer than to point out in the light of the previous 
discussion why it should be condemned. It treats num- 
ber as an independent entity — as something apart from 
the mental activity which produces it ; the natural gene- 
sis and use of number are ignored, and, as a result, the 
method is mechanical and artificial." 

Objections to the Method of Symbols. — The follow- 
ing are pointed objections to this method : 1. It teaches 
form before meaning; the symbol before the thing sym- 
bolized. 2. It is entirelj^ abstract. 3. It gives the 
learner a fundamentally wrong idea of number. 4. It 
subordinates meaning to form. 

Naturally the mind learns meaning, then the syra- 
bol of the meaning. This is always the order of develop- 
ment. Thus the idea, then the word; the thought, then 
the sentence ; the niunber, then the figure, the symbol, is 
nature's order. The method of sjonbols is unnatural in 
that it reverses this order. 

Number originated in connection with objects, in 
the process of measuring them. The method of symbols 



104 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

ignores this truth and is unnatural by its abstractness. 

By the method of symbols the learner gets the idea 
that the figures are the numbers, if he gets any definite 
idea of number at all. Many a child has studied this 
way for years without ever having had the right idea 
of number. 

The constant manipulation of symbols leads the 
learner into the habit of thinking of symbols as all im- 
portant in number work. This dwarfs his power to 
grow in reasoning. He learns how to manipulate the 
figures, but he does not learn how to think for him- 
self. 

The Fixed Unit Method. — This method, also called 
the method of things, is founded upon the incorrect 
idea that number is an inherent property of objects. 

^^The method of things — of observing objects and 
taking vague percepts for definite numerical concepts — 
treats number as if it were an inherent property of 
things in themselves simply waiting for the mind to 
grasp it, to 'abstract' it from the things. But we have 
seen that number is in reality a mode of measuring 
value, and that it does not belong to things in them- 
selves, but arises in the economical adaptation of things 
to some use or purpose." 

If the teacher places before the children objects 
and teaches them: to call the first, one; the next, two; 
the next, three, etc., then gives little problems based 
upon such work, she is employing the fixed unit method. 
All work which deals concretely with objects in teach- 
ing number but fails to impress the children with the 
idea that number grows out of measurement is by the 



STEPS IN NUMBER. 105 

fixed unit method. Such little problems as the follow- 
ing, succeeding the ideas got as above indicated are ac- 
cording to the fixed unit method. 1. Put two cubes in 
one place on the table and three in another place; put 
them together and tell the story. 2. Put four counters 
in a pile; take away three and tell the story. 3. Two 
counters and two counters and one counter are how 
many counters? 

Objections. — The following will appear as objec- 
tions to the fixed unit method: 1. It ignores the mind's 
natural activity in the genesis of number. 2. It gives 
the learner a wrong notion of what number is. 3. It 
usually is scattering and lacks definiteness and organ- 
ization. 

In the genesis of number the mind uses one quan- 
tity in measuring another. The quantity thus chosen is 
the unit of measureuDcnt and may be almost anything. 
It is a unit, but variable; not fixed. It may be a foot, 
a boy, a dozen eggs, a book, a second, a century, etc. 
This notion of the measuring unit as relative is entirely 
ignored by the fixed unit method. 

The fixed unit method gives the learner the notion 
that number is an inherent property of things, some- 
thing to be abstracted from them, such as weight or 
form. Such an erroneous idea of number is a constant 
hindrance to the learner through his entire work. 

Much of the work done throughout the country by 
the fixed unit method has been so fragmentary, hap- 
hazard, and purposeless that this in itself should con- 
demn it. 

The fixed unit method with its defects is however 



106 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

superior to the method of sjnnbols in that it is con- 
crete. That is to say, the work is done in connection 
with objects. 

The Gruhe Method.— "The Grube Method is a 
method of teaching Primary Arithmetic, extensively 
use in Germany, The principle of this method is, that 
it makes each individual number, instead of the opera- 
tions, the basis of instruction ; and combines in each les- 
son, from the start, the four fundamental operations. 
Thus, in treating the number 2, 'all the operations pos- 
sible within the limit of this number' are performed in 
the same lesson. Thus the child is taught that 1-|-1=2, 
2X1=2, 2—1=1, 2^1=2, 2-^2=1, etc. In teaching 
the number 4, the lesson is 1+1+1+1=4, 4 — 1=3, 
4X1=4, 4-^1=4; 2+2=4, 2X2=4, 4—2=^2, 4^2=2, 
3+1=4, 4—3=1, 3X1+1=4, 4-f-3=l, and 1 remain- 
ing, etc. The whole circle of operations is exhibited 
and taught in treating each individual number." 

The above sets forth pretty clearly the essential 
idea in the Grube Method. This idea is that each num- 
her is to he exhausted hefore the learner is even led to 
suspect that there are higher numhers, to say nothing 
of his learning something of their uses. Thus, if the 
number 6 is being taught, everything possible to be 
done with 6 is done before 7 is introduced. 

The Grube Method is concrete; that is, it is done 
in connection with objects. The children are led to 
handle cubes, spheres, counters, grains of corn, etc., in 
discovering the relations in the numbers. 

The Grube Method is very systematic and definite. 
In America it has been customary to deal with the 



STEPS IN NUMBER. 107 

numbers from 1 to 10, inclusive, as indicated above, 
the first year ; with the numbers from 11 to 20, inclusive, 
the second year; with the numbers from 21 to 100, in- 
clusive, the third year, and as much as possible of the 
rest of number during the remainder of the child's 
school life. Such a plan was so definite and systematic 
that the teacher knew exactly what to do at all times. 

The Grube Method does not deal with the unit as 
variable, but as fixed. It does not show number as 
arising out of the process of measurement. 

"We thus see the fundamental fallacy of the 
Grube Method in another light. Just as, upon the 
whole, it proceeds from the mere observation of objects 
instead of from the constructive use of them, so it 
works with fixed units instead of with a whole quantity 
which is measured by the application of a unit of meas- 
urement. The superiority of the Grube Method to some 
of the other methods, both in the way of introducing 
objects instead of dealing with numerical symbols, and 
in the way of systematic and definite instead of hap- 
hazard and vague work, has tended to blind educators 
to its fundamentally bad character, psychologically 
speaking. ' ' 

"According to the Grube Method unity is one 
thing and that is the end of it. ' ' 

"Avoid the interest-killing monotony of the Grube 
grind on the three hundred and odd combinations of 
half a dozen numbers, which thus substitutes sheer me- 
chanical action for the spontaneous activity that simul- 
taneously develops numerical ideas and the power to 
retain them." 



108 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

Objections to the Gruhe Method. — The following 
are pointed objections to this method: 

1. It works with fixed units instead of with a 
whole quantity to be measured. 

2. It is monotonous and so, uninteresting. 

3. It dwarfs the learner's power to learn numbers. 

4. It is unnatural. 

Any method which fails to lead the learner to see 
that number grows out of measurement is a fixed unit 
method. And such a method never fails to give the 
learner erroneous ideas of the nature of number. 

Dwelling upon one number so long is monotonous 
and tiresome. The mind likes change and can be inter- 
ested continuously only in that which manifests change. 

To do all with any number possible before working 
with a higher number is dwarfing to the mathematical 
ability of the learner. It restrains the mind unduly to 
work in a stage of development not strong enough to call 
forth its full power. Work of such a kind always re- 
sults in stunted growth and loss of possibility. 

The demands of life before the learner comes to 
school and also after he leaves school are not that he 
will need to know all there is to be known of one 
number before learning anything of a higher number. 
On the other hand he will need to know much of many 
numbers before he needs to exhaust any one. Thus to 
exhaust one number before taking up a higher is un- 
natural. 

The Speer Method. — ' ' The Speer Method in number 
is one that considers number as a ratio, and not as 'how 
many' in the usual meaning of that term. In the de- 



STEPS IN NUMBER. 109 

velopment of the Speer Method there are three stages: 
(1) The discovery of qualitative relations of miagnitude, 
i. e., that one magnitude is longer or shorter, larger or 
smaller, heavier or lighter, etc., than another. (2) The 
discovery of the quantitative relations of magnitude as 
expressed by their ratioes, i. e., how many times one 
magnitude is longer or shorter, larger or smaller, heavier 
or lighter, etc., than another. (3) The determination of 
the plan of procedure in the solution of problems from 
the ratios of the magnitude involved." 

The Speer Method considers number a ratio; that 
is, the idea of the relation between two magnitudes. 

In teaching in the first stage of the Speer method 
sense training is aimed at largely ; that is, skill in seeing 
the qualities of things. This is done that the learner 
may readily grasp quantities as vague w^holes ; for quan- 
tities as wholes can be grasped only by discrimination 
of qualities. 

The following illustrates work in this stage : 

"Pin or paste squares of standard red and orange 
where they can be seen. Pin the red above the orange. 

1. Find things in the room of the same color as the 
red square. What things can you recall that are red? 

2. Look at the orange square. Find the same color 
elsewhere in the room. Recall objects that have this color. 

3. Close your eyes, and picture, or image the red 
square. Now the orange square. 

4. Which square is above? Which below? Name 
the two colors. 

5. To-morrow bring something that is red and some- 
thing that is orange. Also tell the names of orange or red 
objects that you see in going to and from school. 

Pin or paste a square of yellow below the orange. 



110 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

1. Look at the yellow. Find the same color in 
the room. Recall objects having this color. 

2. Look at the red, then the orange, then the yel- 
low. Close the eyes and picture the colors one after an- 
other in the same order. 

Cover the squares. 

3. Which is at the top? At the bottom? In the 
middle? 

4. Name the three, beginning at the top. Name 
from the bottom. 

5. Which color is third from the top? Second from 
the top? Third from the bottom? 

6. To-morrow bring something that is yellow and 
tell me the names of things that you have seen that are 
yellow. 

Add a square of green. 

1. Find green. Recall objects that are green. 

2. Try to see the green square with the eyes closed. 

3. Look at the four colors. 

4. Think of the four, one after another, with the 
eyes closed." 

In teaching in the second stage of the Speer Method 
the work is held closely to the idea that all number 
work must deal with the comparison of magnitudes. 
Thus the comparison of magnitudes is made the organiz- 
ing idea of the work in this stage. The nature of the 
elementary parts of the work in this stage may be seen 
from the following : 

"1. Cut a rectangle into two equal parts. After cut- 
ting, place the two parts together to see if they are equal. 
Practice cutting and comparing the two parts. 

2. Cut rectangles into three equal parts. Compare 
the parts. Are they equal? Practice. 

Drawing. — 1. Draw a line. Place a point in the 
middle of the line. Measure to see if the parts are equal. 



STEPS IN NUMBER. Ill 

Try again. Measure. Is one of the parts longer than the 
other? Are they equal? What is meant by equal? Show 
me one of the two equal parts. Show me the other. 

2. Draw a line. Separate it into four equal parts. 
Measure. Are the parts equal? Show me one of the four 
equal parts. Show me three of the four equal parts. Show 
me the four equal parts. 

3. Draw a line. Separate it into three equal parts. 
Measure. Are the parts equal? 

4. Show me where the line should be drawn to 
separate the blackboard into two equal parts. Point to 
the equal parts of the board. 

5. Can you see the two equal parts of the floor? 
Of the top of your desk? Show me two equal parts of 
other things in the room." 

"Relations of Quart and Pint. — Show pupils the pint 
and quart measure. Have them find the number of pints 
to a quart by measuring. 

1. After measuring, tell all you can about the quart 
and the pint. 

2. What is sold by the pint and by the quart? 

3. A quart is how many times as large as a pint? 

4. What part of a quart is as large, or as much, as a 
pint? 

5. A quart is how much more than a pint? 

6. A pint is how much less than a quart? 

7. A quart and a pint equal how many pints? 

8. Show me 1 ^^ quarts. What have you shown me? 

9. IVz quarts equal how many pints? 

10. If we call a pint one, what ought we to call a 
quart? Why? 

11. If we call a quart 2, what ought we to call the 
sum of a quart and a pint? 

12. If a quart is 1, what is a pint?" 

In the third stage of the Speer Method practical 
problems of all kinds are taught, it being presumed that 



112 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

the children have obtained correct ideas of number in the 
two preceding stages. It is also presumed that from 
the work in the first two stages a substantial and ade- 
quate foundation is laid for the third stage, 

A Practical Method. — From the various methods in 
use in teaching number the teacher must select a line of 
procedure possessed of the three following characteris- 
tics: 

1. The method must be usable by the teacher of 
average intelligence and average professional prepara- 
tion, 

2. It must be systematic — well organized and 
definite. 

3. It must to a large extent be in harmony with 
the mind's natural mode of action in the development 
of number ideas and number processes. 

The Speer method is hardly in harmony with the 
first and second of these points; the Grube method vio- 
lates the third ; the Fixed unit method violates the third ; 
and the method of Symbols violates both the second and 
third. 

With these three thoughts for guidance a further 
study of the method of procedure in teaching number 
should prove profitable. 

The following quotations will give some idea of the 
correct way to begin number teaching : 

"The first lessons in arithmetic should be based on 
the practice of measuring in its varied application." — 
W. T. Harris. 

''Number grows out of the idea of measurement. 
This should never be forgotten. It is the abstract char- 



STEPS IN NUMBER. 113 

acter of so much of the number work that makes it un- 
interesting and unprofitable." 

The Two Stages of Number Work. — For the pur- 
pose of studying its method number work may be di- 
vided into two stages. In a very general way the first 
stage consists of about the first three years of work in 
number which the child is accustomed to do in school. 
This is appropriately called the primary stage of num- 
ber work. The second stage embraces the remainder of 
the learner's work in arithmetic in school, and is ap- 
propriately called the advanced stage of number work. 

Characteristic of the Primary Stage, — The follow- 
ing points characterize the number work in this stage: 

1. The work is mjuch more elementary, or simple, 
than that in the advanced stage. 

2. The work in this stage is to be done best with- 
out placing any text-books in the hands of the pupils. 

3. The work in this stage is much narrower in 
scope than that in the advanced stage. 

4. The work in the first stage is much more con- 
crete than that in the advanced stage ; that is, the work 
is done more by means of objects. 

Scope of the Work in the Primary Stage. — It has 
been customary in most parts of the country to confine 
the number work in school for the first three years 
mainly to the numbers from one to one hundred, inclu- 
sive. Evidence of this general scope of the work in the 
primary stage of number teaching is found in the State 
courses of study. The State courses of study for In- 
diana and Illinois indicate in a general way what is done 
in this stage of the work. A study of these shows that 



114 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

the first year's work in number is spent mainly on the 
number from 1 to 10, inclusive; that the second year's 
work is spent mainly on the numbers from 11 to 20 in- 
clusive; and that the third year's work is spent mainly 
on the numbers from 21 to 100, inclusive. And since 
these State Courses of Study are prepared by repre- 
sentative educators of these states, they indicate the 
uniformity of educational opinion more or less approxi- 
mately. 

The object in making the dividing line between the 
first year 's work and the second year 's work at the num- 
ber 10, and between the second year 's work and the third 
year's work at the number 20, and between the third 
year's work and the fourth year's work at 100 is ar- 
bitrary, no doubt. There is certainly no very good reason 
for not going further in the first year, or further in the 
second year, or further in the third year, if the ability 
of the students, length of the school year, and progress 
of the students demand it. To make these divisions 
ironclad is unwarranted either in reason or experience. 
Much just criticism has been given to such a division of 
the number work. 

However arbitrary this division of the number work 
is, it has, nevertheless, served a useful purpose. And 
this purpose is that it has systematized and made definite 
the work of these years. This has been useful to both 
teachers and students. It has prevented aimless, frag- 
mentary, disconnected work. Indeed the thought which 
gave rise to this division of the number work was that 
work might thus be made systematic, definite, and clear. 

If the work on the numbers from 1 to 100, inclusive. 



STEPS IN NUMBER. 115 

is to be emiphasized in the primary stage, the next ques- 
tion is, What is to be done with any individual number, 
for instance 9? Or what, for instance, is to be done 
with the number 4 in this stage of the work? In order 
to answer this question it is necessary to study what 
can be known of a number, and to this we turn. 

What Can Be Known of a Number. — A careful 
study will show that the following may be known of a 
number : 

1^ The number as a whole. 

2^. The relations in the number. These are as 
follows : 

1^. Integral, as follows: 

1^. Any two unequal numbers that make the 
number, as in the following problems : 

If a boy has five marbles and finds four more, how 
many has he? 

If a book costs four dollars and a trunk five doUars, 
what do both cost? 

2^. Any two equal numbers that make the 
number, as in the following problem: 

John earns three dollars in a day, and James earns 
the same; what do both earn? 

3^. Any two unequal mimbers into which the 
number may be separated, as in the following problems : 

John had six pennies and spent two; how many 
had he left? 

A man spent six of his ten dollars for provisions; 
how many had he left ? 

4^. Any two equal numbers into which the 
number may be separated, as in the following problem : 



116 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

A farmer has eight horses and sells four ; how many 
has he left? 

5^. The number of equal numbers that make 
the number, as in the following problems : 

A man gives two marbles to each of four boys ; how 
many marbles does he give? 

A boy leaves two pints of milk at each of five 
houses; how many pints does he leave? 

6^. The number of equal numbers that are in 
the number, as in the following problems: 

A man has eight pints of milk; how many quarts 
has he ? 

A teacher wishes to give ten problems to his boys, 
two to each boy ; to how many boys can he give ? 

7^. The equal parts of a number, as in the fol- 
lowing problemist 

A man divides eight oranges equally among four 
boys; how many does he give to each? 

A stationer distributes nine tablets equally among 
three girls; how many does each receive? 
2^. Fractional, as follows: 

1^. The equal parts of a number, as in the 
following problems : 

A boy had eight marbles and lost four; what part 
did he lose? 

A boy had eight apples and gave six of them away ; 
What part did he give away? What part did he have 
left? 

3^. The applications of the number. 

1^. Denominate; as, four pecks in a bushel, or 
four gills in a pint. 



STEPS EST NUMBER. 117 

2^. General; as, when teaching the number 4, 
little problems involving four books, four boys, four 
birds, etc., are solved. 

4^. The notation of the number. 
The notation of number is the systematic represen- 
tation of number by means of symbols. The symbol of 
the number mjay be (1) the word or Avords, as eight; 
(2) the figure, as 8; (3) the Roman Letters, as VIII. 
That is to say, the notation of number is of three kinds, 
words, figures or letters. 

Summary : This may be summed up by saying the 
following may be known of a number : 
1\ The number as a whole. 
2\ The relations in it. 
1^. Integral. 
2^. Fractional. 
3\ Its applications. 
1^. Denominate. 
2^. General. 
4^. Its notation. 
1\ Word. 
2^. Arabic. 
3^. Roman. 
What Is to Be Done with a Number. — From the 
foregoing study it is seen that a number, for instance 4, 
is to be taught (1) as a whole; (2) as to the relations 
in it, both integral and fractional ; ( 3 ) as to its applica- 
tions, both denominate and general, and (4) as to its 
notation. This work is to be done with each number, and 
the numbers to be emphasized the first year are those 
from 1 to 10, inclusive; those to be emphasized the 



118 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

second year are the numbers from 11 to 20, inclusive; 
and those to be emphasized the third year, the numbers 
from 21 to 100, inclusive. Each of these points will 
repay further study. 

The Number as a Whole. — When does the learner 
know a number as a whole and how best proceed in 
teaching it? The answer to the first part of this ques- 
tion is, the learner knows a number as a whole when 
he knows it as made up of so many ones, or again, he 
knows it as a whole when he knows it as made up of 
the next number below it and one. Thus the learner 
knows the number 4 as a whole when he knows it as 
made up of four ones, or when he knows it as made 
up of three and one. And in answer to the second 
part of the question, one term in the above needs to be 
studied, and this is the term, one. 

The Meaning of One. — One in number is not a fixed 
quantity, it is relative. It arises from the application 
of some measuring unit once to some unmeasured whole. 
Thus one may be anything — one inch, one mile, one week, 
one century, one ounce, one ton, one tree, one boy, one 
book, one flower — employed as a unit of measure. 

The perennial dispute as to whether one is a num- 
ber or not seems absurd when the right idea of number 
is held. One is a number in just as true a sense as ten. 

This idea of what one is furnishes guidance in 
teaching a niunber as a whole; that is, it indicates that 
the teaching must be done so as to lead the child to see 
that the ones are so many applications of the measuring 
unit. This may be done as follows : 

If the number to be taught is four, draw a line on 



STEPS IN NUMBER. 119 

the board four feet long; give the child a foot measure 
and have him measure off three feet, then one more 
foot, and ask him how long the line is. If he does not 
know the name of the new number it is good teaching 
to give it to him. Or give the child a pint cup and 
have him measure three pints of water and put them 
in a bucket, then one more pint, and ask how many- 
pints of water are in the bucket. Then ask him to show 
fours of things in the room, or on the table, or tell 
fours of things he has seen at home or on the road to 
school. Repeat this kind of work until the learner has 
the idea of four as a whole well in mind. 

The work with any of the other numbers as a whole 
is of a similar kind. 

The Relations in the Number. — From the study of 
the nature of number, and from the study of the mean- 
ing of one, knowledge valuable for guidance in teaching 
the relations in a number is obtained. These studies in- 
dicate that the relations should be taught in such a way 
as to lead the learner to see that number is always the 
result of measurement. The measuring idea must al- 
ways be made prominent. 

In order to make clear the meaning of the integral 
relations in a number, the relations in the number 4 may 
be arranged, as follows: 

1. Three and one. 

2. One and three. 

3. Four minus one. 

4. Four minus three. 

5. Two and two. 

6. Four minus two. 



120 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

7. Four divided by two. 

8. Two twos. 

9. Four minus four. 

10. Four divided by one. 

11. Four divided by four. 

12. Four ones. 

It readily appears that these relations may readily 
be divided into synthetic and analytic groups. 
The synthetic are: 

1. Three and one. 

2. One and three. 

3. Two and two. 

4. Two twos. 

5. Four ones. 
The analytic are : 

1. Four minus one. 

2. Four minus three. 

3. Four minues two. 

4. Four minus four. 

5. Four divided by two. 

6. Four divided by one. 

7. Four divided by four. 

It is also evident that addition, subtraction, multi- 
plication, and division are all employed in working out 
the relations in any number. Since these processes are to 
be taught, the question, What shall be the order of 
teaching them? arises. The following quotation states 
the truth on this question: ^'The psychological order 
as determined by the demand on conscious attention is 
the old-time arrangement — Addition and Subtraction, 
Multiplication and Division. 



STEPS IN NUMBER. 121 

It is the order in which numerical ideas and pro- 
cesses appear in the evolution of number as the instru- 
mjent of measurement; the order in which they appear 
in the reflective consciousness of the child; the order 
of increasing growth in psychological complexity." 

From the foregoing study it is seen that in teaching 
the relations in a number, the teacher holds in mind a 
given relation, and so manipulates the objects or has 
the children so manipulate them as to lead them to grasp 
the relation and state it. In this work the idea of 
measurement is made prominent, and the order of the 
process is, first, addition and subtraction ; secondly, mul- 
tiplication and division. 

Help will probably come to some one from arrang- 
ing the fractional relations of some number, as of the 
number 4. They are as foUows: 

1. Three fourth of four and one fourth of four. 

2. One fourth of four and three fourths of four. 

3. Four minus three fourths of four. 

4. Four minus one fourth of four. 

5. Two fourths of four and two fourths of four. 

6. Four minus two fourths of four. 

7. Four divided by two fourths of four. 

8. Two two fourths of four. 

9. Four minus four fourths of four. 

10. Four divided by one fourth of four. 

11. Four divided by four fourths of four. 

12. Four one fourths of four. 

The Applications of a Number. — There are two kinds 
of applications of a number to be studied, as follows : 



122 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

1. The applications of a number in the tables; that 
is, the denominate applications. 

2. The general applications of a number; that is, 
in the little practical problems of life. 

Under the denominate applications the children are 
to be taught concretely in connection with any number 
all the units of the tables, which consist of that number ; 
as, 

Four inches are one hand. 

Four gills are one pint. 

Four pecks are one bushel. 

The denominate applications of numbers from 1 to 
10 are: 

1. 

One cent. 
2. 

Two one-cents are two cents. 

Two pints are one quart. 

Two reams are one bundle. 

A sheet folded into two leaves is a folio. 
3. 

Three feet are one yard. 

Three feet are one pace. 

Three miles are one league. 

Three one-cents are three cents. 
4. 

Four quarters are one yard. 

Four quarters are one dollar. 

Four inches are one hand. 

Four gills are one pint. 

Four pecks are one bushel. 



STEPS IN NUMBER. 123 

Four quarts are one gallon. 

Four weeks are one month. 

Four farthings are one penny. 

A sheet folded into four leaves is a quarto. 
5. 

Five one-cents are five cents. 
6. 

Six feet are one fathom. 
7. 

Seven days are one week. 
8. 

Eight quarts are one peck. 

Eight cord feet are one cord. 

A sheet folded into eight leaves is an actavo. 
9. 

Nine square feet are one square yard. 
10. 

Ten cents are one dime. 

Ten dimes are one dollar. 

Ten dollars are one eagle. 

Under general applications of a number, the pupils 
are required to solve, and to form and solve miscella- 
neous problems; as, 

If a boy buys three apples at one store and one at 
another, how many does he buy? 

If a man has eight oranges, to how many boys can 
he give two each? 

Notation of the Number. — ^Notation is the science 
and art of representing number by symbols. The sym- 
bols used are words, letters, and figures. Thus the num- 
ber 4 may be symbolized by (1) four; (2) by IV; and 



124 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

(3) by 4. The first kind of notation is called word nota- 
tion; the second is called Roman notation; and the third, 
the Arabic notation. 

At some time during the first three years the nota- 
tion of numbers from 1 to 100 is taught. 



CHAPTER IX. 

STEPS IN NUMBER CONTINUED. 

The Primary Stage. — In a general way it may be 
said that in the primary stage of number work, the 
numbers from 1 to 100, inclusive, are to be taught, each 
(1) as a whole; (2) as to the integral and fractional 
relations in it; (3) as to its general and denominate 
applications; and (4) as to its notation. This how- 
ever must be understood to mean that most of the work 
falls within this scope, but that it is not of necessity 
limited to this scope. 

Time of Beginning. — It is generally conceded best 
not to start the child on the number work proper at the 
beginning of the first year, and that the number work 
for the first month or two should be incidental. The 
following is what one fine thinker says on this point: 

**The work during a period of about three months 
in so far as number is concerned is incidental. 

The main idea is to train the mind by a considera- 
tion of form, as sphere, cube, cylinder, prism, square, 
triangle, points, etc. 

In doing this work number is, of necessity, inci- 
dentally introduced and learned." 

The work in this period of the first stage of number 
work is the same as was explained in the first stage of 
the Speer method and is founded upon the same thought. 



126 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

This thought is that the learner most needs at this stage 
of his development to attain skill in detecting qualities 
of things. That is to say, he needs sense training. In 
connection with this number is incidentally learned. 

In pursuance of this thought lessons are given on 
colors, fruits, plants, animals, form, magnitudes — ^the 
cube, the cylinder, the square, the oblong, the triangle, 
the circle, the line, the cone, the prism, etc., the teacher 
constantly emphasizing sense training and the compari- 
son of magnitudes. 

The Number as a Whole. — It will be recalled that 
the learner knows a number as a whole when he knows 
it as made up of so many ones, or as made up of the 
first number below it and one. Thus when the learner 
has been led to see this he has been taught the number 
as a whole. 

Illustration. — If the child is to be taught the num- 
ber 7 as a whole, it is assumed that he knows the number 
6. Then we may give him a number of cubes and have 
him to put six in one place and one in another place; 
then put them all together, and tell the story. If he 
does not know the name of the new number it is to be 
given to him. Next he may put six counters in one 
place and one in another place, then put them all to- 
gether and tell the story. The story is six counters and 
one counter are seven counters. 

The story is a term which the child is to be taught 
to understand from the first, just as a matter of con- 
venience in teaching. The child will learn it at first by 
imitation, but will soon understand it and use it ration- 
ally. 



STEPS IN NUMBER — CONTINUED. 127 

Further Illustration. — More in accord with the idea 
that numher results from measurement is the following : 
Draw a line on the board. Give the child a foot rule 
and tell him to measure off six feet, then another foot. 
Ask him how many feet he measured off. Have him 
tell the story. It is, six feet and one foot are seven feet. 
Or have the child cut a paper slip six inches long, then 
another one inch longer. Ask him how long the second 
one is. 

The Relations in a Number. — In teaching the rela- 
tions in a number the integral relations should be taught 
first and then those involving fractions. These must be 
taught concretely; that is, by means of objects, at first. 
There are, though, really three stages in teaching each 
relation. And these stages are as follows: 

1. The teaching of the relation in the presence of 
the objects. This is called the sense-perception stage. 

2. The teaching of the relation in connection with 
objects, though the objects are not present. This is 
called the imagination stage. 

3. The teaching of the relation without objects; 
that is, abstractly. This is called the abstract stage. 

Illustration. — Suppose the relation is 4 and 3 are 
7. The teacher has the children to measure off four 
inches of a line, then three more, and tell the story; or 
she has them to put four counters in one place and three 
in another, then all together and tell the story. This 
is concrete teaching in the sense-perception stage. The 
sensuous m,aterial is handled by the children as a means 
in leading them to see the relations in the number. 

After having taught the relation, 4 and 3 are 7, in 



128 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

this way, the teacher might give the following: Three 
birds are sitting on the fence and four in a tree, if those 
on the fence should fly into the tree, how many 
would there be in the tree? Or, a farmer has four 
bushels of corn in a box and three bushels in a barrel; 
how many bushels has he in both the box and the barrel ? 
In these cases the objects are not present, but the child 
pictures them in his imagination. This is teaching the 
relation in the imagination stage. 

But suppose the teacher says to the children 4 and 
3 are how many? or, 3 and 4 are how many? the work 
is purely abstract, and such teaching is in the abstract 
stage. 

Importance of Each. — The work is important in 
each of these three stages of teaching the relations in 
primary number, and should be intelligently and sys- 
tematically done. 

The first is important because it is impressive, it 
appeals to the learner's senses, it is interesting, and lays 
a sure foundation for the other two kinds of teaching. 

But the child must learn to think when not in the 
presence of the objects about which he is thinking. If 
one were able to think only in the presence of objects 
he would be a slave to his environment ; he would belong 
more to the world of things around him than to himself. 
So the child needs the work in the imaginative stage 
that he may learn to picture the conditions of problems 
to be solved in life. And this he needs to learn to do 
well. 

The learner needs work in the abstract stage in 
order to become skillful in thinking number relations. 



STEPS IN NUMBER — CONTINUED. 129 

When 4 and 3 are presented to the mind it is desirable 
that 7 come into consciousness as nearly instantly as pos- 
sible. And a similar thing is desirable concerning other 
numbers. In order that the learner may become skillful 
in seizing the relations in numbers thus, he must have 
much of this abstract work. 

Thoroughness of Work. — In working with any num- 
ber, as with 6, it is not only not necessary to exhaust 
the number before taking up the relations in the next 
number, but not even desirable. To exhaust one num- 
ber before beginning with the next is to deal with the 
numbers in the number series as isolated to too great 
an extent. Such teaching does not sufficiently emphasize 
the relations between the numbers. It further is un- 
natural and keeps the learner upon one thing until it 
becomes monotonous and uninteresting to him. 

But the work must he thorough. In dealing with 
the most important relations in numbers from 1 to 100^ 
the work must he varied sufficiently to maintain inter- 
est, hut must he repeated often enough for the child sa 
thoroughly to fix them in mind that they will come into 
consciousness at once when needed. Nothing is more 
annoying than for the learner to have to stop and 
count his fingers, or dots, or some other objects in order 
to know, for instance, how many 8 and 9 are. 

Fractional Relations . — The work in teaching the 
fractional relations should keep pace approximately 
with the work in teaching the integral relations. That 
is to say, if, for instance, the integral relations in the 
number 4 are being taught, before leaving the number 



130 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

the fractional relations are to be presented through the 
three stages — the sense-perception stage, the imagina- 
tion stage, and the abstract stage — as in teaching the 
integral relations. 

Illustration, — In starting this work an apple or 
some such object may be separated by a pupil or the 
teacher into two equal parts, the children being led to see 
that the parts are equal. Then they are given the name 
for the parts, if they do not already know it. After 
they learn the nam,e, one-half, the children are led to 
see the following: 

One-half and one-half are one. 

One less one-half is one-half. 

Two one-halves are one. 

In one there are two one-halves. 

One-half of one is one-half. 

In teaching the fractional relations of the number 
3 there are two stages : 

1. The teaching the idea, one-third. 

2. The teaching the thirds of three. 

The idea, one-third, is to be taught as follows: 
Give a child a paper three inches long and tell him to 
cut it into three equal parts. Then teach him that each 
part is called one-third; then as follows : 

One-third and two-thirds are one. 

Two-thirds and one-third are one. 

One less two-thirds is one-third. 

One less one-third is two-thirds. 

Three one-thirds are one. 

In one there are three one-thirds. 



STEPS IN NUMBER — CONTINUED. 131 

One-third of one is one-third. 

Two-thirds of one is two-thirds. 

In teaching the thirds of three the procedure is as 
follows : 

Give the learner three cubes and ask him to show 
you one-third of them. Then have him tell the story. 
It is, one-third of three cubes is one cube. Then he is 
to be led to see : 

One-third of three is one one. 

Two-thirds of three is two ones. 

Three-thirds of three is three ones. 

One is one-third of three. 

Two are two-thirds of three. 

Three are three-thirds of three. 

The procedure in teaching the fractional relations 
of other numbers is similar to that in teaching these 
relations of 3 ; that is, the stages, and the steps are in 
general the same. 

Important and Unimportant Relations. — There are 
numbers of which the relations, both integral and frac- 
tional, are of much less practical importance than those 
of some other numbers. Thus 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 
41, 43, and 47 are some of these numbers, while 10, 12, 
14, 15, 16, 18, 20, 21, 24, and 36 are among the more 
important. 

In teaching these less important numbers it would 
not be necessary nor desirable to teach all the possible 
relations in them. It would not be desirable, for in- 
stance, to spend much time on ^/g, ^/g, V4, ^/g, ^/e, ^A, 
^/sj Vo? Vio> Viij and V12 ^^ 13> biit the thirteenths 



132 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

of 13 should be taught. Likewise in teaching 16, it 
would not be desirable to teach the thirds, fifths, sixths, 
sevenths, ninths, tenths, elevenths, twelfths, thirteenths, 
fourteenths and fifteenths of 16, but it would be desir- 
able to teach the halves, the fourths, the eighths and 
sixteenths of 16. 

The Measuring Idea. — By way of emphasis justi- 
fication is claimed in repeating that every reasonable 
effort should be made to keep before the learner's mind 
the idea that number is the result of measurement. So 
in teaching the relations in numbers this idea should 
emphatically pervade the whole work. 

The Denominate Applications. — Denominate ap- 
plications are the applications of numbers as used in 
the tables, as 8 quarts are one peck, or 4 gills are one 
pint. These are to be taught concretely in connection 
with the various numbers in the number series. 

Illustration. — Thus in teaching the number 2, one 
denominate application to be taught is, two pints are 
one quart. In preparing to teach this concretely the 
teacher secures a quart measure, a pint measure, and 
something to nieasure. She has a child to take the pint 
measure and fill the quart measure, noting how many 
pints it requires. Then the quart measure is filled and 
emptied into the pint measure, the child noting how 
many times it fills the pint. In each case the story is 
asked for. In the first case the story is, two pints of 
water are one quart. In the second case the story is, 
in one quart of water there are two pints. This is on 
the assumption that water is measured. 



STEPS IN NUMBER — CONTINUED. 133 

The other denominate applications of two and of 
the other numbers are to be taught in a similar way, 
when at all possible. All are to be made concrete. 

Further Illustration, — In preparing to teach the 
denominate application, 4 pecks are one bushel, the 
teacher secures a peck measure, a bushel measure, and 
something to measure, as oats. She then has the learner 
to measure with the peck and fill the bushel, and tell 
the story. It is, four pecks of oats are one hushel. 
The bushel measure is filled and as many pecks taken 
from it as can be, then the story told. It is, in one 
hushel of oats there are four pecks. 

The General Applications. — General applications 
are simply those in the solution of problems found in 
life. There is no more important part of number work 
than these problems in general applications. A teacher's 
success in teaching number will depend very largely 
upon her ability to give her pupils many good problems 
— problems not too hard and not too easy; problems 
that are well graded, those that will constantly lead the 
learner to a little stronger thinking. 

In connection with every number many of these 
little problems should be solved by the students. In 
this work there is rare opportunity for the teacher to 
show her skill in leading the pupils to think for them- 
selves. And the learner's growth in applying number 
to the solution of the problems arising in practical life 
depends almost wholly upon how well the teacher does 
this work in general applications. 

It is often a very heavy task upon teachers to ar- 



134 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

range these problems originally for their pupils. This 
task may be made much lighter on teachers by their 
securing some good teacher's manuals on number, or 
primary arithmetic. These contain large numbers of 
problems from which teachers may draw. 

A list of such books is given at the end of this 
chapter. 

Illustrations. — Suppose the number under consider- 
ation is 21. The following are some problems suitable 
to children in the average class in this stage of the 
work : 

1. Some birds were in a tree; 7, which was ^/g of 
them, flew away. How many were there at first? 

2. A man sold 14 sheep, which were ^/g of what he 
had at first. How many had he at first ? 

3. A gardener takes 21 bushels of apples to mar- 
ket, and sells ^/^ of them. How many does he sell? 
How many has he left ? 

4. A man gave 3 children 7 apples each; how 
many did he give to all? 

5. A little girl has 21 picture cards to give to her 
playmlates. To how many can she give them, if she 
gives 3 to each ? 

6. Vt of 21 are how many? 

7. ^/a of 21 are how many? 

8. Vs and -/^ of 21 are how many? 

Picturing Problems. — This is work to be done by 
the children at their seats or at the board. 
The following will illustrate : 
1. How many 4 spheres in 16 spheres? 



STEPS IN NUMBER — CONTINUED. 



135 




2. I have 20 cents to spend for picture cards; if 
I pay 4 cents a piece, how mlany can I buy ? 






OOOQQOpOqop 



This is valuable to children in helping them to see 
the relations in their problems in the earlier stages of 
their work. It should not be too long continued though. 
The learner should reach a place as soon as possible 
where he can solve the little problems without pictures. 
To carry this work too far would not foster rapidity of 
thought. As a device, though, properly used it is very 
helpful to children, and it lightens the work of the 
teacher. 

Notation. — Notation is the science and art of repre- 
senting numbers by means of symbols. There are three 



136 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

kinds: (1) the word notation; (2) the Roman nota- 
tion; and (3) the Arabic notation. These are all in 
use to some extent, but the Arabic is used almost ex- 
clusively in teaching number and arithmetic. 

There is a question concerning the best time to 
teach notation worthy of some study. Some say that 
notation should be taught as soon as the learner has 
number ideas. And by this it is meant that figures 
are to be taught as soon as number work begins. Others 
would not teach notation before the beginning of the 
second year of the child's work in number. One good 
authority says: "The fundamental defect in dealing 
with arithmetic is that expression is treated instead of 
number. 

This m;anifests itself in various ways: 

1. In the failure to teach the ideas and oral terms 
of numbers for a considerable time before beginning the 
work on written symbols. In reading, the child has 
been dealing with ideas and oral terms for six or more 
years before he begins work upon the written word. ' * 

This author, a most excellent thinker, would not 
have the figures taught before the beginning of the 
second year of number work. 

The main objection against teaching the Roman, 
and Arabic notation during the first year is as follows: 

It tends strongly toward giving the learner the 
wrong idea of number — the idea that the figures are the 
numbers. 

The point in favor of teaching the Roman, and 
Arabic notation the first year is as follows: 



STEPS IN NUMBER — CONTINUED. 137 

It is convenient in teaching to have the child know 
the figures the first year, and since he must know them 
some time, it seems just as well to teach them as soon 
as he gets the number ideas. 

It is a great misfortune to the learner for him to 
get the notion that the figures are the numbers, and all 
reasonable precaution should be taken to prevent such 
an error. So it is probably better to postpone teaching 
notation at any rate till the learner is well founded in 
correct number ideas, or during most of the first year 
of number work. 

Two Stages. — There are two stages in teaching nota- 
tion to children: The first consists of teaching the 
notation of the numbers from 1 to 9, inclusive. The 
second consists of teaching the notation of the numbers 
from 10 on, as far as desirable. 

The First Stage. — The first stage is very simple 
and offers very little difficulty in teaching. The follow- 
ing is a good way to proceed : 

Draw a line on the board. Have the child measure 
off six inches. Tell him you are going to put on the 
board what makes you think six. Write the figure 6 
on the board. Tell him to measure one more inch, and 
you will write what stands for it. Write the figure 7. 
Or tell him to erase one inch and you will write what 
stands for what is left. 

Point to the figure 6 and have the child measure 
off the number, or point to 5 or 7 and let him measure. 

Again measure off six inches and let him find the 



138 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

figure; or measure off five inches, or seven inches and 
have him find the figures. 

It is evident that this process is much like teaching 
words as standing for their ideas in reading, and the 
steps are in general the same. They are as follows: 

1. The advance of the learner's mind in rethink- 
ing the old number. 

2. The advance of the learner's mind in adjusting 
itself to the figure. 

3. The advance of the learner's mind in making 
the association between the number and the figure. 

The following device will help the learner in under- 
standing and remembering this stage of notation: 

00 000 0000 00000 000000 0000000 



1 


2 


3 4 


5 


6 


7 






00000000 


000000000 








8 


9 


' 







00 


000 0000 


00000 


000000 


0000000 


one 


two 


three four 


five 


six 


seven 


I. 


II. 


III. IV. 


V. 


VI. 


VII. 


1 


2 


3 4 


5 


6 


7 






00000000 


000000000 








eight 


nine 










VIII. 


IX 










8 


9 







The Second Stage. — This is the stage which offers 
the most difficulty in teaching, and the teaching well of 
the work in this stage is of the highest importance. 

In order to have a good basis to build upon in the 
work in this stage of notation, the notation of ten, 
eleven, and twelve must be taught in the same way as 



STEPS IN NUMBER — CONTINUED. 139 

the notation of the numbers from 1 to 9 was taught. 
Then the following principles of notation can be 
taught : 

1. The one ten resembles the one one in being a 
one, but it differs from it in value. 

2. Therefore its symbol is like that for one one 
yet different from it. 

3. The same symbol is used, but it is different 
from it in being held in the second place by some figure 
to its right. 

4. The difference in value expressed by a figure 
is because of position. 

5. The first is one 's, or unit 's place, and the second 
is ten's place. 

The following indicates how to proceed in teaching : 
Give the child twelve counters. Ask him how many 
ones in twelve. Tell him to show you how many tens 
in twelve and how many ones over. Ask him to write 
12 on the board. Ask him what the 2 is ; what the 1 is. 
He should readily see that the 2 is two ones, and that 
the 1 is one ten. 

Teach eleven in the same way, using eleven coun- 
ters. 

Have the child write 10 on the board. Ask him 
what the 1 is ; what the means ; why it is used. 

Ask him if he can tell you now where one's place 
is in writing number; where ten's place is. 

From this work well done the learner will be able 
to write 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, and 19. 

Work out 20 concretely with him, that is, with the 



140 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

counters. Then have him write 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 
and 90. 

The next point of difficulty will be the notation of 
100 and numbers above it. One hundred may be worked 
out concretely as follows: 

Give the child 100 counters. Have him divide them 
into tens by putting little rubber bands around each 
ten. Have him make them into one hundred by putting 
a rubber band around the ten tens. Have him tell how 
many tens and ones he has to write. Ask him what to 
put in ten's place; what in one's place. Have the 
learner then write 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, etc. 

Importance of the Early Mastery of Notation. — 
The notation of numbers in both the science and art 
aspects simply must be mastered in the primary stage 
of number work. To fail to have the learner do so is 
inexcusable. The teacher can make no more fundamen- 
tal error in teaching number than to fail to have stud- 
ents thoroughly to understand notation in the early 
number work. It is an impossihility to teach students 
well the formal processes of addition, subtraction, mul- 
tiplication, and division, if they do not understand well 
notation. Let the student have well in mind notation, 
and the teaching of the formal processes of addition, 
subtraction, multiplication, and division rationally be- 
comes easy. The importance of notation is not likely to 
be overestimated. 

Enumeration. — Enumeration is the process of read- 
ing number symbols. Children are to be taught to read 
number symbols in connection with the work in nota- 



STEPS IN NUMBER — CONTINUED. 141 

tion. The two go hand in hand and may best be taught 
together. 

The Multiplication Table. — The question, When 
and how to teach best the multiplication table? is one 
worthy of consideration. Many have felt that the old- 
time way of memorizing it by rote is a very poor way 
to learn it, and it certainly is an interest-killing, and 
time and energy wasting process. 

It is evident that if, at the end of the third year, 
the child has mastered the relations in the numbers up 
to and including one hundred, he has mastered the mul- 
plication table. For instance, in dealing with four, he 
learns that 2X2 are 4; in dealing with six, he learns 
that 2X3 are 6; in dealing with eight, he learns that 
2X4 are 8; in dealing with ten, that 2X5 are 10; in 
dealing with twelve, that 2X6 are 12, and so on. In a 
similar way he learns in dealing with six, that 3X2 are 
6; in dealing with nine, that 3X3 are 9 ; in dealing with 
twelve, that 3X4 are 12; in dealing with fifteen, that 
3X5 are 15, and so on. And thus with the various 
numbers. For example, in dealing with nine, he learns 
that 1X9 is 9; in dealing with eighteen, that 2X9 are 
18; in dealing with twenty-seven, that 3X9 are 27; in 
dealing with thirty-six, that 4X9 are 36, and so on. 

From this study it appears that the multiplication 
table may be taught in connection with the various num- 
bers throughout the entire first three years of number 
work. 

This does not mean that the multiplication table 
is to he taught incidentally ; for to teach a thing inci- 



142 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

dentally usually means to make it of secondary impor- 
tance and, therefore, to slight it. The multiplication 
table must not be slighted. 

The teacher may set about to teach it systematically 
as follows : 

In teaching, for instance, twelve, the table of twos 
should be learned to twelve; the table of threes, the 
table of fours, and the table of sixes also should be 
learned to twelve. 

In teaching twenty-four, the table of twos, the 
tables of threes, the table of fours, the table of sixes, 
and the table of eights should be learned. 

In teaching thirty-six, the table of threes, the table 
of fours, the table of sixes, and the table of nines should 
be learned. 

In teaching fifty-six, the table of sevens, and the 
table of eights should be learned. 

Enough numbers have been mentioned to show the 
nature of the work. All other numbers involving the 
tables should be taught in the same manner. 

The advantages in teaching the multiplication table 
in this way are as follows : 

1. The opportunities for reviewing the tables are 
so frequent that the learner will almost surely learn 
them thoroughly. 

2. There is a gradual growth which makes the 
burden of memorizing light. 

Much drill must be given in order that the associa- 
tion be not successive. It is very annoying if, for in- 
stance, when the child encounters 7X7, he must repeat 



STEPS IN NUMBER — CONTINUED. 



143 



the table of sevens up to that place to get the niimher 
49. It is desirable for 49 to come into consciousness 
instantly when he wants the product of 7X7. The 
following device is helpful in this work: 




The seven in the center of the circle may be 
changed to 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, or 9. 

Teacher's Helps. — The following are helpful books 
for teachers on the subject of primary number: 

1. Went worth and Reed's Primary Arithmetic, 
Ginn and Co., Chicago. 

2. Cook and Cropsey's Eelementary Arithmetic, 
Parts I. and II., Silver, Burdett and Co., Chicago. 

3. Speer's Primary Arithmetic, Parts I. and II., 
Ginn and Co., Chicago. 

4. Pierce's First Steps in Arithmetic, Silver, Bur- 
dett and Co., Chicago. 

5. The Werner Arithmetic, Book I., The Werner 
Co., Chicago. 



CHAPTER X. 

STEPS IN NUMBER — CONCLUDED. 

General Scope. — In this stage of number work is 
included all the work the learner does in school in arith- 
metic beyond the work in what has been called the 
primary stage. In this stage are to be taught the 
formal processes of addition, subtraction, multiplication 
and division. An intensive study of denominate num- 
bers is made. Fractions, both common and decimal, 
percentage, in its applications, ratio, proportion, etc., 
are also taught. 

It is the purpose to study here the method of only 
the elementary parts of this work. The method of the 
advanced parts of arithmetic, however valuable, is be- 
yond the scope of the present studies. 

The Formal Process of Addition. — The learner has 
been dealing with addition for almost three years now, 
but not with the formal process of addition. This will 
not be difficult for him now. 

There are two stages in teaching it, as follows: 

1. The teaching of those problems in which the 
sum of the addends in any order does not equal ten. 

2. The teaching of those problems in which the 
sum of the addends in any order equals or exceeds ten. 



STEPS IN NUMBER — CONCLUDED. 145 

123-[-2344-522 illustrates with a problem in the first 
stage, and 2896+8637+231 illustrates with a problem 
in the second stage. 

The First Stage. — This stage is quite simple and is 
easily taught, because it does not involve the idea of 
reduction. The procedure in teaching it is as follows: 
Send the learner to the board and tell him to write 
twenty-five; then tell him to write thirty-two under the 
twenty-five. Ask him to add the two and the five. Ask 
him what his two is, and what his five is ; then what his 
seven is. Tell him to write the seven where he thinks 
it belongs. If he does not get it in the right place, show 
him where it is customary to write it. Now lead him by 
questions to see that the two and three are tens. Have 
him add them, and ask him if he knows where to write 
the five and why. Then ask him how many twenty-five 
and thirty-two are. 

If the child understands this problem, he will solve 
the next one without help. Give him a goodly number 
to fix well in mind the form of such problems. 

The Second Stage. — This stage is more complex and 
offers more difficulty in teaching, because it involves the 
idea of reduction. The procedure in teaching it is as 
follows : 

Tell the learner to write on the board, or slate, or 
note-book fifty-six. Tell him to add to it thirty-four. 
Lead him by questions to see that the six and the four 
are ones; then that their sum is ten ones. Then lead 
him to see that his one is one ten and must be put in 



146 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

ten's place, and that lie has only naught to put in one's 
place. Let him write the one in ten's place and the 
naught in one's place. Lead him by questions to see 
that the five and the three are tens ; and that their sum 
is eight tens. Let him write it in ten's place. Then 
show him that for convenience the one ten is not written 
but held in mind and added to the three and five tens 
and the sum of all of them written. 

From this start problems gradually increasing in 
length and difiiculty are given and solved, the reason 
for each step being obtained from the students by the 
questions of the teacher. 

A degree of development will soon be reached which 
will make it desirable to give the names and work out 
the meaning of the term — addend and sum — used in ad- 
dition; also the principle that only like numbers can he 
added. These, if taught in the best way possible, will 
be taught inductively. 

It is to be noticed that the old erroneous notion of 
* ' carrying to the next higher order ' ' is entirely unneces- 
sary, and easily avoided when addition is rightly taught. 

The Formal Process of Subtraction. — The learner 
has been solving problems in subtraction for about three 
years already, but not problems in the formal process of 
subtraction. Having also learned notation well, he now 
has a good basis for the work in subtraction as a formal 
process. 

As in addition, there are two stages in teaching this 
process, as follows: 



STEPS IN NUMBER CONCLUDED. 147 

1. The stage in which those problems in the sub- 
trahend of which the number in any order is smaller 
than the number in the minuend in the same order, are 
taught. 

2. The stage in which those problems of which the 
minuend has a number in any order smaller than the 
number in the same order of the subtrahend, are taught. 

4867 — 2534 illustrates with a problem in the first 
stage, and 2365 — 1758 illustrates with a problem in the 
second stage. 

The First Stage. — This stage offers little or no dif- 
ficulty in teaching because of its simplicity. The pro- 
cedure in teaching it is as follows: 

Have the learner write on the board, for instance, 
875 and under it 352 and tell him to take one from the 
other and write the result where it should be written. 
From what he has learned in notation and addition he 
will almost surely catch the idea in the first problem. 
Then all that is necessary is to give him a number of 
problems gradually increasing in difiiculty. 

The Second Stage. — In this stage the learner will 
encounter a real difficulty, because it is made somewhat 
complex by the reduction involved. The procedure in 
teaching should be somewhat as follows: 

Tell the learner to place 34 on the board and 
subtract 18 from it. He will know that 18 may be 
taken from 34, but he comes face to face with a diffi- 
culty at the start; namely, he can not take 8 from 4. 
The teacher now leads the learner to see what to do, 



148 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

concretely. Give him 34 counters, and tell him to make 
them into tens. He makes them into 3 tens and places 
a rubber band around each ten. Lead him to see that 
the 34 is the symbol of 3 tens and 4 ones. Now ask 
him to take away 8 one-counters. In order to do this 
he must change 1 ten-counters into ones. Then ask him 
how many tens he has and how many ones. Have him 
remx)ve the eight ones, and write on the board the num- 
ber of ones he has left. Ask him how many tens he 
has left. Tell him to take away one ten and write on 
the board the number of tens he has left. 

In this concrete way the learner is led to see that 
when the number in any order in the minuend is smaller 
than the number of the same order in the subtrahend 
the subtraction is performed by first reducing one unit 
of the next higher order to units of this lower order, 
and then taking away the number in the subtrahend 
from all the units of that order. 

If necessary, other problems should be solved in this 
concrete way. Then the further work will consist in 
having the pupil to solve problems gradually increasing 
in length and difficulty, and in teaching him the mean- 
ing of the terms employed in subtraction. These terms 
may be taught inductively and will be so taught in 
work of the best kind. 

It should be noted that, if subtraction be taught 
in this rational way, there arises no necessity for intro- 
ducing the fiction of ''borrowing one from the next 
higher order and paying back." 



STEPS IN NUMBER CONCLUDED. 149 

The Formal Process of Multiplication. — As in the 
formal process of addition, and of subtraction, the pupil 
should now be well prepared for multiplication as a 
formal process, since he has been solving little problems 
in multiplication for some years. 

There are in this work also two stages, as follows: 

1. That stage in which the problems solved have 
multipliers consisting of but one order; as, 358X6. 

2. That stage in which the problems solved have 
multipliers consisting of more than one order; as, 
358X64 or 3860X238. 

The First Stage. — This offers very little, if any, 
trouble in teaching, if the work up to this place has been 
reasonably well done. The following is a very good way 
to proceed in teaching it: 

Ask the learner to write 125 on the board and write 
7 ones under it and draw a line beneath. Ask him how 
many 7X5 are, and have him write the result in the 
proper order. Then have him write the result of 7X2 
in the proper order; then, the result of 7X1 in the 
proper order. At this stage of the work the form is: 

125 
7 



35 

140 
700 

Now ask how the result may be written so as to 
appear as one number. If the learner can not see, he 



150 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

will have to be shown, since the form is purely a matter 
of convenience. 

Further work on more difficult problems is then to 
be given. 

The learner mlist also be taught that a problem of 
this kind is a problem in multiplication. 

The Second Stage, — This stage offers some points 
of difficulty in teaching, but the learner will readily- 
master them if the work as indicated in these studies 
has been done moderately well up to this place. The 
procedure in teaching is as follows : 

Ask the learner to multiply, for instance, 236 by 24. 
He will probably not see how to multiply by so large a 
number. Lead him to see that he can multiply by 4. 
This he will readily do since it is like the work he has 
been doing in the first stage of multiplication. Next 
he is led to see how to multiply by the 2 tens. He 
knows that 2X6=12, but he must be led to see that 
it is 12 tens. This he will see when he is led to see 
that 2 tens times 6 ones is 12 tens. He is told to write 
the 12 tens where it belongs. Have him fill out one's 
place with a naught. The next step is to lead him to 
see that 3 tens multiplied by 2 tens gives 6 hundreds. 
Let him write the product where it belongs and fill out 
the places with naughts. And, lastly, he must be led to 
see that 2 hundreds multiplied by 2 tens gives 4 thous- 
ands. Let him again write the result where it belongs 
and fill out with naughts. Now he is to be led to see 
that to get the numbers all together in the product he 
must add. The form of the above solution is as follows : 



STEPS IN NUMBER — CONCLUDED. 151 



236 

24 



944 
120 

600 
4000 



5664 
The next step is to lead the learner to see how to 
shorten the form by writing as one number 120,600, and 
4000, and that in this case it is not necessary to write 
the naught in one's place, since we can tell what the 2 
is by its being under 4 tens. So the form is shortened 
to the following : 

236 
24 



944 
472 



5664 
The learner will frequently catch the idea from the 
first problem. If he should not do so, other problems 
must be worked out in the same way. Then the further 
work consists of the solution of problems of various 
numbers gradually increasing in difficulty. From the 
above the teacher should see how to teach such problems 
as 876X40 and 8002X402. No new principles are in- 
volved. 



152 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

Next the meaning of the terms, multiplicand, mul- 
tiplier, and product should be taught. 

The Formal Process of Division. — There are also 
two stages in teaching the formal process of division: 

1. What is commonly called long division. 

2. What is commonly called short division. 

The Order of the Stages. — There is some difference 
of opinion as to which should be taught first, long 
division or short division. There are, no doubt, success- 
ful teachers who teach short division first and equally 
successful ones who teach long division first. It prob- 
ably does not make any vital difference which is taught 
first. 

Any abridged form is usually more difficult to 
understand than the full form in any process. Short 
division is an abridged form and should therefore prop- 
erly come after the full form is known. To teach short 
division first is said to make long division more diffi- 
cult for the learner. 

The First Stage. — After the learner has had the 
work up to this place as indicated in these studies he 
should be in such an attitude of mind that he would 
want to see the reason for each step in any problem. 
The formal process of division should be taught in har- 
mony with this idea ; that is, rationally. The procedure 
in teaching it is as follows : 

Place on the board, for instance, 456 and place the 
divisor 3 in its position, and tell the pupil you want to 
find how many threes in 456. Ask how many threes in 
4. When the learner says one, tell him you will place 



STEPS IN NUMBER CONCLUDED. 153 

it where it belongs, and put it there. Now he must be 
led to see that 4 is four hundreds and so the 1 is one 
hundred. Ask him to put naughts so as to show that 
the 1 is one hundred. Then he will have to be shown 
that the 3 is multiplied by 100 and the product written 
under 456, and then subtracted from it. The teacher 
now asks the learner if there are any 100 threes in 156. 
The next step is to lead the learner to give the number 
of threes in 15, and to see that the 5 is 5 tens. Then 
multiply across and subtract. Next lead him to see that 
the threes in 6 are 2 of one's order. The form now 
stands as follows: 

3)456(100 
300 50 

2 

156 
150 



6 

6 

Now ask the learner how many threes in 456, and 
lead him to see how the quotient may be written as one 
number. 

Have him to understand that such a problem is 
a problem in division. 

Now give him a small problem to solve, for instance, 
32-^2. Lead him to give reasons for each step. Have 
him solve many problems gradually increasing in diffi- 
culty. When he begins to get skillful to some degree 
show him how the form is further shortened by, instead 
of writing the two naughts at the right of the 3, writing 



154 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

merely the 3 under hundreds ; also, that a similar thing 
is true of 15, and that the 5 and 6 are brought down 
only as needed. The shortened form is then as follows: 

3)456(152 
3 



15 
15 

6 
6 

Now give the learner problems gradually increas- 
ing in difficulty to solve according to the shorter form. 

The Second Stage. — The teaching of short division 
will now be very easy. It is evident that it is only a 
further shortening of the form. Using the same prob- 
blem, for instance, show the learner how the form may 
be shortened into short division in the case of easy prob- 
lems. Then give him plenty of suitable problems to 
solve by the shortest form, and all will be well. 

Conclusion. — ^After having mastered the four funda- 
mental processes, the learner is ready to study the var- 
ious applications of these in the arithmetic work proper. 

It is beyond the scope of these studies to investigate 
the method of teaching these various applications. 

If the work so far has been done as advocated in 
these studies, the learner will be able to take care of 
himself in the further work, to a large degree. 



CHAPTER XI. 

SUBJECT-MATTER, PURPOSE AND BASIS OF NUMBER. 

General Nature. — It will be remembered that the 
subject-matter of any subject or lesson is the material 
of study in that subject or lesson; also, that it consists 
of (1) the facts in the subject, and (2) the relations 
of the facts peculiar to that subject alone. 

Accordingly it may be said that the subject-matter 
of number is, in general, the facts a pupil must learn, 
to know number, together with the proper relations of 
these facts. 

A closer examination will show ( 1 ) what these facts 
of number are, and (2) what the relations in which they 
are to be considered are. The facts to be mastered in 
number study are the facts of the number continuum, 
or number series. That is to say, the facts to be mas- 
tered in the study of number are the facts of the num- 
bers from one to infinity. The number continuum, or 
the number series, consists of the numbers from one on, 
including one, of course. 

And the relations in which these numbers are to be 
studied are those indicated in our previous study. They 
are: 

1. The numbers as wholes. 

2. The numbers as to what they are made up of 
and what they may be separated into. 



156 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

3. The numbers as to their notation. 

4. The numbers as to their denominate and general 
applications. 

From the above the following definite statement for 
the subject-matter of number is obtained: The subject- 
matter of number is the number continuum, each num- 
ber (1) as a whole; (2) as to its flotation; (3) as to 
what it is made up of and what it may be separated 
into and (4) as to its denominate and general applica- 
tions. 

The Purpose of Number. — It is to be remembered 
that the purpose of any subject is to be determined by 
the effect the pursuit of that subject has on the life of 
the one studying it. Now the study of number as a 
subject, like the study of any other subject, affects the 
mind in two general ways, as follows : 

1. By the study of number the learner gets knowl- 
edge valuable for guidance in living. This is called the 
knowledge-giving purpose. 

2. The learner's mind gets exercise, and by means 
of this exercise his mind grows in ability to think read- 
ily and accurately. This is called the disciplinary pur- 
pose. 

The Knowledge-Giving Purpose. — Some subjects 
hold their places in the school curriculum because of 
their knowledge- giving value mainly, while others hold 
their places in the school curriculum because of their 
disciplinary value mainly. Contrary to popular opinion 
number should hold its place in the school curriculum 
mainly because of the useful knowledge the study of it 



PURPOSE AND BASIS OF NUMBER. 157 

gives. This knowledge is such that it gives the learner 
the ability to grasp definitely the world of quantity 
which would otherwise remain only vague wholes to 
him. Thus the learner needs and uses his knowledge of 
number wherever the mind has occasion to think any 
kind of quantity. Occasions for thinking quantity arise 
whenever the mind has to do with time, distance, re- 
sistance, or value, in any specific way whatever. 

Guidance in Industrial Life. — A knowledge of num- 
ber is valuable in every aspect of life, but is most ob- 
trusively valuable in the industrial life of a people. 

It helps to miake this point clear to classify what 
people who are engaged in industrial life mainly do. 
There will be found to be mainly the following three 
lines ; 

1. The production of commodities. 

2. The preparation of commodities. 

3. The distribution of commodities. 

By the production of commodities is meant the pro- 
duction of corn, wheat, oats, barley, hay, cattle, hogs, 
poultry, wool, flax, hemJp, fruit, cotton, coal, stone, iron, 
silk, etc. 

By preparation of commodities is meant their 
change from conditions in which they can not be used 
to conditions fit for use, as manufacturing, etc. 

Distribution of commodities means the process of 
sending them from place to place, to the points of con- 
sumption. 

Commodities could be but poorly produced without 
a knowledge of number. Land must be measured, time 



158 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

must be measured, feed must be measured, fertilizers 
must be mieasured, sprays, medicines, resistance, and 
hundreds of things that come up in connection with 
these things directly demand a knowledge of number. 
And indirectly machinery, sheds, tools, houses, harness, 
etc., required in the production of commodities demand 
a knowledge of number for making and keeping. In 
short, commodities could be produced in only the most 
extremely primitive way without a knowledge of nimi- 
ber. 

The preparation of commodities in adequate degrees 
would simply be an impossibility without the guidance 
which a knowledge of number furnishes. In preparing 
products constant need of measurement arises. The 
machinery manufactured, the food products made, the 
medicines, the paints, fillers, varnishes, glass, earthen 
ware, china ware, carpets, rugs, dress goods, etc., could 
never be made without the measurement of quantity, 
and no accurate measurements could be made without 
number. A knowledge of number is thus of absolute 
value in the preparation of commodities. 

In the distribution of commodities a knowledge of 
number is very necessary for guidance. Things can not 
be distributed without involving the necessity of ex- 
change. And in exchange the need for measurement of 
quantity is constant. There can be no traffic, no buying 
or selling without measurement of quantity. The knowl- 
edge of number is necessary in all kinds of exchange. 

The distribution of commodities requires railroads 
and their equipments^ steamboats, steamships, the dredg- 



PURPOSE AND BASIS OF NUMBER. 159 

ing of rivers, docks, canals, locks, etc., none of which 
can be made without the guidance the knowledge of 
number gives in measuring quantity. 

Guidance in Sciences. — In the sciences of astron- 
omy, physics, chemistry, geology, geography, etc., a 
knowledge of number is constantly needed. It is a safe 
assertion to say that the natural sciences could never 
have reached the degree of development to which they 
have attained without having been supplemented by a 
knowledge of number. 

This study realizes to us that, when it is said that 
the main purpose of number is to give the learner 
knowledge which will enable him to make a vague whole 
of quantity definite in his effort to think the external 
world, the statement is much more comprehensive than 
one would at first suppose. 

The Disciplinary Purpose. — While the disciplinary 
value of the study of number is important, it is now 
believed by some most excellent thinkers that it has com- 
monly been overestimated. 

The following quotation from Dr. W. T. Harris in- 
dicates something of this thought: "The true psycho- 
logical theory of number is the panacea for that exag- 
geration of the importance of arithmetic which prevails 
in our elementary schools. As if it were not enough 
that the science of number is indispensable for the con- 
quest of Nature in time and space, these qualitative- 
unit teachers make the mistake of supposing that arith- 
metic deals with spiritual being as much as with mat- 
ter; they confound quality with quantity, and conse- 



160 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

quently mathematics with metaphysics. Mental arith- 
metic becomes in their psychology * the discipline of pure 
reason.' " 

The study of number exercises nearly all the men- 
tal faculties to some extent, but it is usually said to be 
most excellent for cultivating reasoning. 

Now it is true that the study of number develops 
the reasoning powers, but inquiry should be made con- 
cerning what kind of reasoning powers it develops. 
Number develops mathematical, or necessary, reasoning. 
The thing dealt with is fixed, definite, and necessary. 
There are no questions as to how the mathematical prob- 
lem will act in response to stimuli or in an effort to 
adapt itself to its environment. The questions which 
have to do with the great problems of human life, its 
emotions, passions, hopes, vicissitudes, disappointments, 
in brief, its struggle in its various and multiform as- 
pects, are not directly dealt with in mathematics. And 
since such subjects are not reasoned about, such reason- 
ing power is not developed. In short the power of 
reasoning developed in mathematics is not the power of 
reasoning which most persons need most in life. One's 
observation does not have to be very acute to observe 
persons who are acute reasoners in mathematics but who 
are not even mediocre in history, politics, religion, 
ethics, sociology, those lines of human endeavor so in- 
timately connected with life. 

A systematic analysis of the purposes of number in 
the school course will certainly show that its highest 



PURPOSE AND BASIS OF NUMBER. 161 

value is in the knowledge it gives; and that the value of 
mathematics is and has been overestimated. 

Conclusion. — An unprejudiced analysis of the pur- 
pose of number leads to the following conclusions: 

1. The knowledge-giving purpose is the main pur- 
pose of number study. 

2. The knowledge-giving purpose of studying num- 
ber is to gain knowledge which will give guidance in 
making vague wholes of quantity definite in the effort 
to think definitely Nature in time and space. 

3. That this in itself is an entirely sufficient reason 
for studying number. 

4. That, while the study of number gives mental 
dispicline, its value from this point of view is quite com- 
monly overestimated. 

Basis. — The learner's basis for studying number 
when he comes to school consists in the main of three 
things : 

1. He knows many qualities of objects; such as, 
hard, soft, rough, smooth, sweet, sour, white, yellow, 
black, light, heavy, etc. Some of these he knows pretty 
definitely, and some of them only vaguely. But they 
enable him to limit objects in time and space. This he 
must do in order to get any kind of start in measuring. 

2. He has ideas of quantity as vague wholes, as 
indicated by the use of such terms as far, near, heavier, 
lighter, larger, smaller, etc. 

3. He can usually count to some extent. If he 



162 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

can not count it is probably a good thing to teach him 
to count as a part of the basis for real number work. 
But the mistake of thinking that since he can count he 
necessarily knows number must not be made. 



CHAPTER XII. 

ERRORS IN TEACHING NUMBER. 

Prevalence of. — ^Number teaching presents to the 
teacher many an opportunity for error. And since so 
many of the teachers in the primary schools teach with- 
out having studied current approved methods in num- 
ber, many mischievous errors are made. A second cause 
of these errors is that many teachers hold the unreason- 
able notion that all that is necessary in way of prepara- 
tion to teach number well is a knowledge of number. 
The following is a list of common errors: 

1. Symbols, figures, are taught instead of number. 

2. Teaching so that the learner gets the wrong 
conception of number. 

3. Teaching in an unorganized, unsystematic, pur- 
poseless way. 

4. The teaching the formal processes of addition, 
subtraction, multiplication, and division too early, and 
unrationally. 

5. Too much drill upon one number in the effort 
to exhaust it before taking up other numbers. 

6. Failure to bring out and emphasize the rela- 
tions sufficiently among the various topics taught. 

7. Too much emphasis on complexity and not 
enough on accuracy. 

Symbols Instead of Numbers. — One good authority 



164 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

says the following on this point: ''The fundamental 
defect in dealing with arithmetic is that expression is 
treated instead of number. Symbol is taught instead 
of substance." 

Dealing with figures instead of with numbers is 
formal and meaningless and places the mind's emphasis 
upon the symbol without the meaning which should be 
symbolized. It is like learning to repeat words without 
knowing their meaning. It is the kind of work which 
fails wholly to call forth the mind's natural activity 
in learning number. It is the kind of work which ar- 
rests the development of the number faculty of the 
mind, the kind of mental food which gives mental in- 
digestion. 

Wrong Number Concepts. — It perhaps does not put 
it too strong to say that three-fourths of the persons 
who have been dealing with number for years either 
have no very definite idea of what number is or have a 
wrong idea of what number is. Perhaps the two wrong 
notions of number most generally held are as follows: 

1. The notion that number is an inherent property 
of objects, such as form or weight. 

2. The notion that the symbols of number, the fig- 
ures, are the numbers. 

These two wrong concepts of number result from 
bad teaching in the number work. 

The first idea of number makes number a qualita- 
tive thing instead of quantitative and grows out of such 
teaching as follows : the teacher has the child to observe 
an object and tells him it is one; then another, and 



ERRORS IN TEACHING NUMBER. 165 

tells him it is two; a third, three; another, fow^, etc. 
Then she proceeds to work with the numbers as if he 
knew them actually. 

The second idea of number makes the symbol, the 
figure, the number, and it grows out of the usual way 
of teaching number. Figures are introduced and dealt 
with from the start. Little problems are given to be 
solved on the board, note-book or slate. The learner 
reaches a certain degree of skill in manipulating figures. 
They are so important a part of the work that he very 
naturally grows into thinking that they are actually 
the numbers. 

Unsystematic Number Teaching. — Much number 
teaching in the past and a good deal of it at present 
is poor because of its unsystematic, fragmentary char- 
acter. Teachers have often not known what the aver- 
age child can do in number, what he knows of number 
when he comes to school, nor when and why he should 
begin the number work: in short, they have thought 
through no systematic plan of teaching number. 

This condition of things must be more or less com- 
mon so long as so many teachers attempt to teach num- 
ber without having been students of special method in it. 

The mischief such unsystematic work does is (1) 
the learner makes progress too slowly ; that is, it wastes 
his time and energy; (2) it does not discriminate be- 
tween the important and the unimportant in number; 
(3) it is uninteresting and gives the learner undesirable 
habits of thought. 

Formal Teaching of Fundamental Processes. — The 



166 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

formal processes of addition, subtraction, multiplication, 
and division are rational. That is to say, the form of 
these processes is founded on thought, but so often as 
usually taught to the learner the form is entirely with- 
out reason. Children who are sufficiently developed to 
study these formal processes at all may be led to see 
the reason for each step, and they should by all means 
be taught so they may do so. The merely formal teach- 
ing of these processes is responsible for the senseless 
jargon of ''carrying to the next higher order" in ad- 
dition, and of ''borrowing one from the next higher 
order" in subtraction. 

The meaningless manner of teaching the form of 
these fundamental processes is one of the most wide- 
spread as well as most inexcusable sins against the 
learner in number teaching. 

Exhausting the Number. — The custom which still 
prevails in some schools of taking up one number, for 
instance 6, and doing all possible to be done with it 
before beginning any work with any succeeding num- 
bers, is to be condemned in very strong terms. To keep 
the learner so long on one number is not only uninter- 
esting and monotonous but positively injurious to him. 

1. It arrests development. 

2. It is in violation of the mind's natural action 
in learning number. 

3. It deadens the learner's native interest in num- 
ber and tends to a dislike for the subject. 

Relations Among Topics. — Many teachers teach the 
various topics, as division, ratio, fractions, addition and 



ERRORS IN TEACHING NUMBER. 167 

subtraction of simple numbers, addition and subtraction 
of denominate numbers, etc., as isolated. This is a 
grave error, for thinking mathematically is only com- 
paring numbers and processes and discovering their 
likenesses and differences; that is, tracing out relations. 
Nothing else so well reveals the nature of the various 
topics in number work as to compare them, and trace 
out the relations among them. A failure to do this re- 
sults in the learner's failure to see number as an organic 
whole. He rather gets the idea that the various topics 
are not essentially related. 

Complexity and Accuracy. — The highest end to be 
aimed at in number work is absolute accuracy in the ap- 
plication of ideas of number to the realities of life. It 
is to be hoped that there is a growth away from the 
time-honored custom of making the chief aim of number 
work the ability to 'work knotty problems." Absolute 
accuracy in addition, subtraction, multiplication, divi- 
sion and other simple number processes is a much more 
important consideration. And after accuracy in im- 
portance comes rapidity. These two things, accuracy 
and rapidity make up skill, and skill in the solution of 
the problems of life in so far as the conquest of Nature 
in time is concerned is the cardinal idea in all number 
work. Thus to slight accuracy and rapidity in the sim- 
ple number processes and devote the time largely to the 
solution of problems involving to a high degree com- 
plexity of relations and processes is an error. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

THE PURPOSE OF GRAMMAR. 

The Traditional Purpose. — There was a time in the 
history of our schools when the curriculum consisted of 
only spelling, reading, writing and arithmetic. But in 
time it was felt that the children in communicating 
their thoughts and feelings did not use as good English 
as they should. It was also seen that there was no sub- 
ject in the school curriculum that had as its specific aim 
to give the children a knowledge of how to do this. As 
this thought and feeling grew in the minds of the peo- 
ple, there became a real felt need for some subject in 
the school curriculum the study of which would give 
the children a knowledge of how to use good English in 
expressing their thoughts and feelings. And this is 
the thing which brought grammar as a subject into the 
school curriculum. It was thought that if the children 
knew Jiow to use good English, they would do so in 
speaking and writing. So it was said that the purpose 
of grammar was to teach how to speak and write cor- 
rectly. This was thought to mean the same as to give 
the habit of speaking and writing correctly. This idea 
of the purpose of grammar was handed down from one 
generation to the succeeding, and accepted as correct 
for a long time, and for this reason is called the tradi- 
tional purpose of grammar. That is to say, the purpose 



THE PURPOSE OF GRAMMAR. 169 

handed down from one generation to another. So now 
we say the traditional purpose of grammar is, that its 
study is to teach us how to speak and write correctly. 

It does not seem to have been considered for a long 
time whether the study of grammar had more than one 
purpose; and, of course, it was not seen that it has a 
primary purpose of great importance and a subordinate 
purpose of much less importance. 

How Purpose Is Determined. — The purpose of any 
subject in the school curriculum or of any lesson is de- 
termined from the effect the pursuit of that subject or 
lesson produces on the life of the learner. There is ab- 
solutely no other way of getting at it. 

Illustration. — If one studies the following selection 
from Browning, he gets the thought that progress is the 
characteristic which distinguishes man from God on one 
hand, and from the beasts on the other. So, if he seeks 
the purpose of the selection, he must determine it from 
the effect on his life, and say its purpose is to set before 
us the message that progress distinguishes man from 
both God and the beasts : 

"Progress, man's distinctive mark alone, 

Not God's, and not the beasts'; God is, they are, 
Man partly is, and wholly hopes to be." 

Thus, if it is held that the purpose of a study is 
one thing, and the study actually accomplishes an en- 
tirely different thing in one's life, there is a contradic- 
tion. This being the condition of things, people will 
sooner or later think that the purpose is not what it 
has been held to be. And if the thing accomplished is 



170 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

a desirable thing, it will come to be regarded as the 
purpose of the pursuit of the subject. 

The Actual Purpose of Grammar. — It will be re- 
membered from previous study that the pursuit of any 
subject gives in general two things: knowledge and 
mental discipline. Thus the pursuit of grammar will 
give these two things, and will have in general these 
two purposes. That is to say, grammar has a knowledge- 
giving purpose and a disciplinary purpose. 

The question whether the knowledge-giving or dis- 
ciplinary purpose of grammar is more important im- 
mediately suggests itself. Keeping in mind how the 
purpose of any school subject is determined, we may 
profitably study this question. 

Effect of the Study of Grammar. — The study of 
grammar does mainly the three following things for the 
one who pursues the subject : 

1. It gives excellent mental discipline. 

2. It gives knowledge which guides to some extent 
in speaking and writing correctly. 

3. It gives knowledge which forms a basis for 
other work in language subjects. 

The extent to which grammar does these three 
things respectively must be taken into consideration, as 
well as the value to be derived from each one, in a sys- 
tematic study of the value of the pursuit of grammar 
to the learner. 

Mental Discipline Furnished hy the Study of Gram- 
mar. — Mental discipline is mental exercise in thinking, 
feeling and willing for the following ends: 



THE PURPOSE OF GRAMMAR. 171 

1. Developing accurate and ready thinkers. 

2. Developing love of truth, beauty, and right- 
eousness. 

3. Developing habits of self-control and self- 
direction. 

Mental discipline is based upon the principle that 
the mind learns to do hy doing. So the question for 
study here is. What does the mind get exercise in, in 
studying grammar? The answer to this question leads 
into the study of three topics in psychology, concep- 
tion, judgment and reasoning. 

Conception. — Our ideas of the various things ex- 
pressed by common nouns are our concepts of these 
things. Thus the words, tree, ham, hoy, flower, and 
hird express concepts. These words each expresses the 
attributes common to all the objects of the class which 
each names. That is to say, each word names a class. 
The terms, concept, general idea, and general notion all 
mean the same thing. Thus conception is the mind's 
process of getting its general notions, or ideas. And a 
general idea is an idea made up of the common truths 
of a class of objects. The following is the formal defi- 
nition for conception: Conception is the mind's process 
of forming an idea made up of the common attrihutes 
of a class of ohjects. 

The Mind's Natural Way of Forming Concepts. — 
The mind naturally gets its general ideas from the study 
of particular objects. In this way the child got his 
idea, man; his idea, dog ; his idea, tree; his idea, flower; 
his idea, horse; his idea, hoolc, and so on. 



172 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

Suppose the first barn a child sees is a square one 
painted red, with a roof sloping one way, containing 
only hay and corn. From this particular object his idea 
of a barn will contain square form, red color, this spe- 
cial kind of roof, and filled with hay and corn. Say the 
next barn he sees has all these attributes but square 
form. From the study of these two particular barns, 
his idea of a barn will contain red color, roof sloping 
one way, filled with hay and corn. To be brief, the 
child from examining particular barns, goes on correct- 
ing his idea of a barn by dropping out attributes, and 
possibly adding some, until his idea contains just those 
attributes which barns possess in common. This is the 
way the mind naturally gets its concepts in life. When 
it examines the first particular object, it forms a ten- 
tative or trial, concept. But it goes on and examines 
other particular objects to correct this tentative concept. 

The logical steps in an act of conception are as 
follows : 

1. The mind has an activity corresponding to 
some particular object. 

2. The mind repeats this activity with other simi- 
lar objects. 

3. The mind compares and contrasts these objects. 

4. The mind abstracts by holding in consciousness 
the common attributes and dropping from consciousness 
more or less the others. 

5. The mind generalizes by extending the common 
attributes of the particular objects examined out to all 
the objects of the class. 



THE PURPOSE OF GRAMMAR. 173 

6. The mind thinks the name of the class. 
The first two steps are frequently put together, 
thus making five steps, as follows : 

1. Examination of particulars. 

2. Comparison and contrast. 

3. Abstraction. 

4. Generalization. 

5. Denomination. 

The two following points in the study of conception 
in connection with method in grammar are worthy of 
emphasis : 

1. Naturally the mind in getting concepts comes in 
actual contact with objects, the material of study, and 
learns about them first hand. 

2. In learning grammar many concepts are to be 
acquired; concepts of the sentence, the noun, the pro- 
noun, mode, tense, person, gender, a modifier, a phrase, 
a clause, and so on, a great stock of concepts. Thus 
learning grammar calls into activity in many places the 
mind's process of conception. 

Judgment. — The concept, as learned, is expressed 
by the common noun, and similarly the judgment is ex- 
pressed by the sentence. It is usually said that the 
sentence expresses the thought, and correctly so, for the 
thought and the judgment mean the same thing. 

The mind at some time in its past experience got 
the idea, trees; also, the idea, grow. Now it grasps the 
relation between these two ideas and asserts it, and 
thinks trees grow. When the mind does this it is judg- 
ing, and the result of judging is the judgment. 



174 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

It should be seen that in judging there are three 
activities involved, as follows: 

1. The mind reacts the old idea, trees. 

2. The mind reacts the old idea, grow. 

3. The mind asserts the relation between them. 

The following is the formal definition for a judg- 
ment: A judgment is the mental product which the 
mind reaches hy asserting the relation between two 
ideas. 

Opportunity is offered at every step in learning 
grammar for exercising the judgment. No definition 
can be made, no classifications, no principles worked 
out, no steps in parsing or analyzing taken without ex- 
ercising the judgment at each step. Grammar thus fur- 
nishes fine opportunities for cultivating the judgment. 

Reasoning. — In judging the mind grasps the rela- 
tion between ideas, and in reasoning it in a somewhat 
similar way grasps the relation between judgments. But 
in reasoning there are three judgments involved, and 
they are so related that the last one is reached because 
of its relation to the two preceding. The following will 
illustrate it : 

This object has voluntary motion. 

This object is an animal. 

This object has voluntary motion. 

The sentence, "Animals have voluntary motion, '* 
expresses one judgment; the sentence, "This object is 
an animal," expresses another judgment; and the sen- 
tence, "This object has voluntary motion," is reached 
by the mind because of its relation to the two preceding 



THE PURPOSE OF GRAMMAR. 175 

judgments. The formal definition for it is as follows: 
Reasoning is the mind's process of reaching a judg- 
ment because of its relation to two preceding judgments. 
From one point of view there are three classes of 
reasoning: 1. Deduction. 2. Identification. 3. Induc- 
tion. The following will illustrate: 

Deduction. 
Animals have voluntary motion. 
This object is an animal. 
This object has voluntary motion. 

Identification. 
Animals have voluntary "motion. 
This object has voluntary motion. 
This object is an animal. 

Induction. 

This object is animal. 

This object has voluntary motion. 

Animals have voluntary motion. 

These three kinds of reasoning may best be known 
from the description of the third judgment in each one. 

In deduction the third judgment has for its subject 
the idea of some particular object about which the idea 
of some attribute is asserted. 

In identification the third judgment has for its sub- 
ject the idea of some particular object of which the idea 
of some class is asserted. 

In induction the third judgment has for its sub- 
ject the idea of some class about which the idea of some 
atrribute is asserted. 

The mind's ability to think readily and accurately 
<ionsists simply in its ability to form accurate concepts 



176 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

quickly, make correct judgments speedily, and reason 
readily and logically. Now all definition making in 
grammar, if naturally done, is one of the very best 
exercises in forming accurate concepts, and in making 
correct judgments. Making definitions is unsurpassed 
as an exercise in cultivating inductive reasoning. Noth- 
ing is more helpful in developing the power of accurate 
and ready inductive reasoning. All parsing and analyz- 
ing exercises identification at every step. These activ- 
ities are accompanied by the feelings which always ac- 
company ready, accurate, logical thinking. These are 
feelings of energy, triumph and exaltation as well as a 
love for the beauty of the sentence. 

Now, no subject in the school curriculum is better 
adapted to give discipline in these mental processes than 
grammar. Thus the disciplinary value of grammar in 
education is very great, indeed. 

Knowledge of How to Speak and Write Correctly. 
— That it is a purpose of grammar to furnish knowledge 
which will be valuable for guidance in speaking and 
writing no one will deny. , But that the knowledge 
gained by the study of grammar is so valuable for guid- 
ance in speaking and writing as has been supposed usu- 
ally is very doubtful. It is not evident that so much 
definition work, parsing and analyzing done in gram- 
mar give knowledge valuable for guidance in using good 
language to any very large extent. On the other hand 
it is evident that they do not. 

But granting that the study of grammar does give 



THE PURPOSE OF GRAMMAR. 177 

knowledge of this kind, the following questions remain 
to be answered: 

1. Just what is this knowledge? 

2. Is the study which gives such knowledge 
adapted to the life of the learner when he is forming his 
language habits? 

3. Does such knowledge after one obtains it guide 
to any very large extent in using good language? 

Just What Such Knowledge Is. — When one at- 
tempts to enumerate points of knowledge which guide 
him in his use of language, he finds much less to enu- 
merate than he might have at first supposed. But the 
following general points may be enumerated: 

1. A verb must agree with its subject in person 
and number. 

2. The right case forms must be used for nouns 
and pronouns in the various cases. 

3. The right number forms must be used for nouns 
and pronouns in various numbers. 

4. The right gender and person forms must be 
used when nouns and pronouns have various genders 
and persons. 

5. The correct principal parts of verbs must be 
used when the verb is in its various tenses, modes and 
voices. 

These ^\e general principles cover most of the 
grammatical knowledge that guides in using good 
language, and what they do not cover is of the same 
general character. 

It is plain that to be able to apply these points 



178 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

of knowledge in the use of language one must have an 
intensive knowledge of grammar and be also a reflective 
user of language. And one to possess such knowledge 
must have years of intensive study and maturity of 
thought. 

Its Study Not Adapted to the Child. — A study of 
child nature reveals the fact that there is a language 
period in the life of the child when he learns language 
as naturally as he learns to walk; also, that if the child 
does not learn to use fairly good language in this 
period, he either never will or will do so at great cost 
and with much difficulty. It is perhaps not too strong 
a statement to say that if the learner does not learn in 
the language period to use pretty good language, he 
never will acquire the habit of good language. This 
language period in the child's life is from the time he 
begins to learn to use language up to fourteen approxi- 
mately. 

The question whether the study required to learn 
those points of grammatical knowledge claimed to guide 
in using good language is adapted to children in the 
language period here suggests itself. No one who under- 
stands how hard a subject grammar really is will answer 
in the affirmative. No subject in the school curriculum 
requires closer analyzing, judging, and reasoning than 
grammar. No subject, not even geometry or psychology, 
is more difficult. And because of this grammar is a 
subject not at all suitable for children in the language 
period. 

The Guidance Grammatical Knowledge Really 



THE PURPOSE OF GRAMMAR. 179 

Gives. — If to know how to use good language and to 
have the habit of using good language were the same 
thing, grammatical knowledge would be of much greater 
value. But they are evidently widely different things. 
A knowledge of grammatical principles is no guarantee 
that one will habitually use good language. A friend 
who is an excellent grammarian, and who well knows 
what good language is, makes many common errors in 
speaking and writing. It is unnatural to learn rules 
and then form one's language by these rules. Naturally, 
the language is born first and the rules are derived from 
the language. One's habits are formed in language be- 
fore he has reached a development sufficient to study 
with any marked success, grammar. The most that can 
be expected of grammatical knowledge in the way of 
guidance is of a negative character. It shows some 
things to avoid. As as matter of fact, though, under 
the tension of thought and feeling we usually forget 
these negative precepts and conform to old habits. Then 
again grammar deals with only correctness in the sen- 
tence. Correctness is only one element of good language. 
Good language has as its characteristics correctness, 
clearness, energy^ and elegance. 

Thus the foregoing study shows grammatical knowl- 
edge to be of much less value for guidance in the use 
of good language than is usually supposed. 

A Basis for Other Language Work. — It is evident 
that the study of grammar gives knowledge which makes 
a good basis upon which to build in teaching rhetoric, 
literature, German, Latin, Greek, French and so on. 



180 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

This is an important part of the knowledge giving pur- 
pose of grammar. Careful thinking shows that this 
aspect of the knowledge-giving purpose is more im- 
portant than the aspect of giving knowledge for guid- 
ance in speaking and writing. 

Summary. — The foregoing study leads to the fol- 
lowing conclusions: 

1. The most important purpose of grammar is the 
excellent mental discipline which its study furnishes. 

2. The next purpose in importance is the acquire- 
ment of knowledge which furnishes a basis for other 
language subjects. 

3. The purpose of least importance, contrary to 
popular opinion, is the acquirement of knowledge for 
guidance in speaking and writing good language. 

Professor Whitney's Thought. — Mr. W. D. Whit- 
ney, America's foremost grammarian, says: ''That the 
leading object of the study of English grammar is to 
teach the correct use of English is, in my view, an 
error, and one which is gradually becoming removed, 
giving way to the sounder opinion that grammar is the 
reflective study of language, for a variety of purposes, 
of which correctness in writing is only one, and a second- 
ary or subordinate one — by no means unimportant, but 
best attained when sought indirectly. It should be a 
pervading element in the whole school and home train- 
ing of the young, to make them use their own tongue 
with accuracy and force, and along with any special 
drilling directed to this end, some of the rudimentary 
distinctions and rules of grammar are conveniently 



THE PURPOSE OF GRAMMAR. 181 

taught; but this is not the study of grammar, and it 
will not bear the intrusion of much formal grammar 
without being spoiled for its own ends. It is constant 
use and practice, under never-failing watch and cor- 
rection, that makes good writers and speakers; the ap- 
plication of direct authority is the most efficient correc- 
tive. Grammar has its part to contribute, but rather 
in the higher than in the lower stages of the work. 
One must be a somewhat reflective user of language to 
amend even here and there a point by grammatical 
reasons; and no one ever changed from a bad speaker 
to a good one by applying the rules of grammar to what 
he said." 

The following thoughts gleaned from the above 
quotation are worthy of special note: 

1. The leading object of the study of English 
grammar is not to teach the correct use of English. 

2. Much formal grammar intruded into primary 
language spoils the language work. 

3. It is constant use and practice, under never- 
failing watch and correction, that makes good writers 
and speakers. 

4. The application of direct authority is the most 
efficient corrective. 

5. No one ever changed from a bad speaker to a 
good one by applying the rules of grammar to what he 
said. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

THE SUBJECT MATTER OF GRAMMAR. 

The Former View. — ^Not many years ago it was 
thought that grammar was a subject with so broad a 
subject-matter that it included almost any phase of 
language work. As such, grammar was said to be 
divided into orthography, etymology, syntax and pros- 
ody. And following up the same line of thought or- 
thography was said to treat of sounds^ letters, syllables, 
and spelling. Such a view of the subject-matter of 
grammar lacks definiteness. It is so general that it 
gives the teacher little or no help. A teacher who holds 
such a view of grammar can do almost anything with 
language and call it grammar work. 

Seeing this trouble, thinkers on grammar began to 
analyze this general notion. As a result of this analysis 
and study they are now pretty generally agreed that 
the unit of grammar is the sentence rather than lang- 
uage as a whole. A little careful study will reveal the 
thought here. 

The Better View. — There are three language units, 
the word, the sentence, and discourse. These are the 
three wholes of which all language is composed, and so 
are the three language units. 



THE SUBJECT MATTER OF GRAMMAR. 183 

Some language subjects deal with the word as their 
unit. The subjects are thus called word studies. They 
are ortJwgrapJiy , orthoepy, etymology, and lexicology. 
Orthography is that word study which treats of the cor- 
rect form of the written or printed word. Orthoepy is 
that word study which treats of the correct pronuncia- 
tion of words. Etymology is that word study which 
treats of the derivation of words. Lexicology is that 
word study which treats of the meaning of words. 

There is but one subject which deals with the 
sentence as its language unit. This subject is grammar. 

Some of the discourse studies deal with discourse 
as a finished product while some deal with it in the 
process of making. ''Evangeline," ''The Barefoot 
Boy," or any other selection in the reading books is 
discourse as a finished product. When one is speaking, 
or writing a letter or essay, he is making discourse, and 
it thus is discourse in the process of making. 

Reading, literature and rhetoric as the science of 
discourse deal with discourse as their language unit, 
but with discourse as a finished product. Language les- 
sons and composition deal with discourse as their lan- 
guage unit, too, but with discourse in the process of 
making. 

The following diagram reveals the relation among 
the subjects of the language group : 



184 



PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 



r 



Language 
Units 



f Spelling. 

ThP Word i Orthoepy, 
ine wora ^Etymology. 

I Lexicology. 

The Sentence ^ Grammar. 

f Reading. 
As a Finished 1 Literature. 

Product 1 Rhetoric as The 

[Science of Discourse. 



Discourse 



In the Process j Language Lessons, 
of Making ( Composition. 



It might seem at first thought that grammar deals 
with the word as its language unit, but such is not the 
case. It is true that words are studied in grammar, 
but never as isolated things. They are always studied 
as parts of the sentence and in relation to the sentence 
as a whole. An isolated word has no grammatical mean- 
ing, strictly speaking. It can be studied grammatically 
only when used in the sentence. 

Purpose of Language. — What is the work which the 
word, the sentence and discourse have to do? That is 
to say. What is their purpose? One can help himself 
in the study of this question by investigating the birth 
of language. Such investigation shows that the instinct 
in humanity to communicate experience gave birth to 
language. When a human being has an experience he 
frequently wishes to arouse a similar experience in an- 
other human being. Now, there is no well known way 
to communicate an experience except by some physical 
medium, and language came into existence as this phys- 
ical medium. Thus language was born of a felt-need 



THE SUBJECT MATTER OF GRAMMAR. 185 

for some physical medium to communicate thought and 
feeling. 

A word was born of a desire to communicate an 
idea. A sentence was born of a desire to communicate 
a thought. Discourse was born of a desire to communi- 
cate related thoughts. 

It is the purpose of everything to realize the idea 
that created it and it naturally has no other purpose. 
Thus the whole purpose of language is to communicate 
thought and feeling. 

The Sentence the Subject-Matter of Grammar. — 
From the study so far the conclusion is reached that 
the sentence as an instrument for communicating 
thought is the subject-matter of grammar. This is, in 
general, an accurate statement for the subject-matter of 
grammar, and is the view held at present by the best 
thinkers on this subject. However, there is further help 
in seeing just what is done when the sentence is a me- 
dium for communicating thought and feeling is studied 
in grammar. The sentence may be studied, first, as a 
whole; secondly, as to its parts, each point considered 
as to its nature, definition, classification and relation in 
grammar work. This is what studying the sentence as 
a medium for communicating thought and feeling means. 
Thus the following statements for the subject-matter of 
grammar are reached: 

The subject-matter of grammar is the sentence as 
an instrument for communicating thought. 

The subject-matter of grammar is the sentence as 



186 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

a wJiole and as to its parts as to nature, definition, 
classification and relation. 

The relation in which the facts in any subject are 
studied is the organizing principle of the subject. Thus 
in the organizing principle of grammar there are found 
four points. 1. Nature. 2. Definition. 3. Classification. 
4. Eelation. 

Native. — Nature means according to the way a 
thing is born. So to study the nature of the sentence, 
or any class of sentences, or any part, or class of parts 
is to study how it came to be. 

Since all language is born of a desire to communi- 
cate thought and feeling, studying the nature of the 
various things in grammar means to seek in the thought 
back of the language form, the reason for this form. 
This, teaching from the thought side, is a vital point in 
all grammar teaching. 

Definition. — The popular notion of definition is that 
it is some sort of formal statement, either oral or writ- 
ten, to be learned and remembered. But definition in 
the most fundamental view is a mental process, the 
mental process which lies back of the formal statement, 
definition as a product. 

An examination of how the mind naturally forms 
a definition will reveal the nature of the process. 

Let the thing to be defined be the triangle. The 
mind examines a particular triangle noting its attri- 
butes; then it examines a second triangle, noting its at- 
tributes; then a third, and so on. The mind compares 
these various particular triangles and selects out their 



THE SUBJECT MATTER OF GRAMMAR. 187 

common attributes. It finds them as follows: 

1. The triangle is a polygon. 

2. It has three sides. 

3. It has three angles. 

The mind now makes a sjoithesis of these common 
truths of triangles in the form of a thought, which gives 
the following: A triangle is a polygon having three 
sides and three angles. This, it is evident, is a defini- 
tion of the triangle, and the mind's process of arriving 
at this mental product is the mental process of defini- 
tion. 

From this the definition of definition is reached, as 
follows : 

Definition is the mind's process of making a syn- 
thesis of the essential common truths of a class of objects 
in the form of a thought. 

For instance, the mind examines several particular 
nouns in sentences, and sees the following truths of 

each one : 

1. It is a substantive word. 

2. It names the idea of an object. 

The mind makes a synthesis of these truths as fol- 
lows: A noun is a substantive word which names the 
idea of an object. But this defines the noun. 

In making the synthesis of the common truths of a 
class of objects, the mind takes the following steps: 

1. It thinks the name of the class to be defined. 

2. It puts the class to be defined into the next larger 
known class. 

3. It sets the class to be defined off from all other 
things in the known class. 



188 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

For instance, in the definition of the sentence, The 
sentence is that language unit which expresses a thought f 
^*The sentence' ' names the class to be defined; ^^is that 
language unit" puts the class to be defined into the 
class, language units, the next known class larger than 
the sentence; and ^^ which expresses a thought'* sets the 
sentence off from the other things of the class, the word 
and discourse. 

What Is Defined. — The thing defined is always a 
class. When the mind defines the adjective, the defini- 
tion is for the class, adjective, not for some particular 
adjective. When the mind defines a prism, the defini- 
tion is for every prism, not for some particular prism. 

Inclusive and Exclusive. — Definition must include 
all the particular objects of the class defined. For in- 
stance, the definition of a bird, a bird is an animal that 
flies, does not include all birds, for ostriches, and other 
birds do not fly. This is thus not a good definition. It is 
not inclusive. Again definitions must exclude all objects 
except those in the class defined. The above definition, 
for instance, is not good, because there are other animals 
than birds that fly. Bats, butterflies, and so on fly. 
The definition is not exclusive. Definitions, to be good, 
must be inclusive and exclusive. 

Natural Way of Defining. — ^Naturally the mind in 
defining does the following : 

1. The mind examines particular objects of the class 
to be defined. 

2. The mind selects out the essential common attri- 
butes of these objects. 



THE SUBJECT MATTER OP GRAMMAR. 189 

3. The mind makes a synthesis of these common 
attributes in the form of a thought by: 

a. Thinking the name of the thing to be defined. 

b. Putting the thing to be defined into the next 
larger known class. 

c. Setting the thing to be defined off from all 
other things of that class. 

Laws of Definition. — Thus to guide in making def- 
initions the following laws may be formulated: 

1. Name the thing to he defined. 

2. Put the thing to he defined into the next larger 
known class. 

3. Set the thing to he defined off from all other 
things of that class. 

Errors in Definitions. — Errors in definitions are 
very common in almost all kinds of text-books. The 
most common are as follows: 

1. They are in part or wholly untruthful; as, "A 
sentence is a thought expressed in words," and ''The 
predicate of a sentence is that which is asserted of the 
subject. ' ' 

2. They are not helpful; as, "A noun is the name 
of an object." 

3. They are not inclusive; as, ''The subject of a 
sentence names that of which something is thought." 

4. They are not exclusive; as, "An adjective is a 
word which modifies a noun or pronoun." 

Definition, Description and Synonym. — A clear dis- 
tinction should be made between a definition and a 
description; also, between a definition and a synonym. 
A definition is a limiting process of thought and deals 



190 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

with a class of objects as such. It selects just enough 
of the common attributes of a class of objects to enable 
the mind to limit the class; that is, think it definitely. 
Description deals with a particular object as such, not 
with a class. It seeks many more attributes than defi- 
nition and is not so economical. A definition is not even 
a description of a class as has sometimes been said. 

A synonym is a word which has the same signifi- 
cation or nearly the same, as some other word, and may 
be used interchangeably with it. 

One who understands definition fully must differ- 
entiate it fully from description and from a synonym. 

Importance to Teacher of Understanding Definition. 
— The teacher who well understands the mind's process 
of definition will thereby become self-helpful and self- 
directive in definition making. He will be able to free 
himself from the text-book, rise above it and criticise 
it. He will have confidence in his own ability and will 
depend upon the integrity of his own thought. He will 
thus become an independent and ready thinker. And 
his students will be led into these mental habits by his 
teaching. 

Classification. — Classification is separating and 
uniting objects into groups upon the basis of their com- 
mon truths. 

The mind classifies in order to help itself to save 
time and energy in thinking the world of objects. The 
mind would be greatly hindered in thinking if it were 
unable to classify. It would make slow progress in 
getting knowledge, if it could make any. 



THE SUBJECT MATTER OF GRAMMAR. 191 

If there are 100,000 nouns in the English language, 
and the common truths of nouns are ( 1 ) they are words ; 
(2) they express objects; (3) they name their objects, 
to know their essential nature without thinking them 
as a class, the mind must think 300,000 things. But if 
the mind thinks them as a class, it must first think 
the three things true of all nouns, then think that each 
one of the particular nouns is a noun, making in all 
100,003 things. Therefore, by thinking the noun as a 
class the mind has saved the time and energy required 
to think 199,997 things, a great saving. 

The common truth or truths according to which 
objects are classified is the basis of classification. 

The teacher in asking for classes should, as a rule, 
give the basis of classification. Otherwise his question 
is likely to be indefinite. To ask, What are the classes 
of phrases, or What are the classes of verbs? is too 
indefinite to be most helpful. Many mistakes are made 
in teaching grammar on this point. 

Again, clear thinking demands that one stick to his 
basis in making classes. To classify the people in an 
audience as Americans, Baptists, Methodists, males, 
Hoosiers, Buckeyes, brunettes, Democrats and Masons 
is not straight thinking. The basis of classification is 
changed too often. The error indicated here is one fre- 
quently made in teaching grammar, too. It is one also 
made by authors of text-books on grammar. 

Relation. — Relation is the connection the mind 
makes between ideas of things by uniting them in the 
same mental act. Thus in grammar the mind relates the 



192 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

noun and pronoun; the adjective and adverb; the rela^ 
tive pronoun and the conjunctive adverb; the conjunc- 
tion and the relative pronoun, and so on. 

The mind most usually relates the ideas of things 
because of their likeness and difference, though it is not 
clear that it always does so. 

Comparison and contrast, relating things because of 
their likeness and difference, is a most helpful aspect of 
relation to teach in grammar. Thus after the noun and 
pronoun have been pretty carefully studied, for in- 
stance, nothing is more helpful and stimulating than to 
compare and contrast them. 

One caution is to be observed, namely, that com- 
parison and contrast must not be unsystematic and un- 
organized. If so, it is likely in a short time to degen- 
erate into worthless surface work, only a few of the ob- 
trusive likenesses and differences being seen. 

In order to compare and contrast two grammatical 
terms well a systematic plan must be followed. Thought 
on this point shows that two grammatical terms may 
be alike and different as follows : 

1. As to essential ideas. 

2. As to grammatical use in the sentence. 

3. As to modifiers they may take. 

Some grammatical terms may have other points of 
likeness and difference, but these are the essential ones. 
These are all evident as to meaning unless it be the first, 
the essential ideas of a thing. 

The essential ideas of a sentence are (1) it is a 
language unit; (2) it expresses a thought. These points. 



THE SUBJECT MATTER OF GRAMMAR. 193 

put together make the definition of the sentence. The 
essential ideas of a triangle are (1) it is a polygon; (2) 
it has just three sides; (3) it has just three angles. 
These points put together make the definition of the 
triangle. Thus it appears that the essential ideas of a 
thing are those points which make the definition of the 
thing. 

Comparison of Noun and Pronoun. — By way of 
illustration in this connection, the noun and pronoun 
may be compared with profit. 

As to essential ideas. 
Likeness. 

1. They both are substantive words. 

Difference. 

1. The noun names the idea of an object, 
but the pronoun does not name the idea of an object. 
As to grammatical use in sentence. 

Likeness. 

1. They both may be used as the subject. 

2. They both may be used as the predi- 

cate. 

3. They both may be used as direct 

object. 

4. They both may be used as indirect 

object. 

5. They both may be used as a possessive. 

6. They both may be used as an apposi- 

tive. 

7. They both may be used adverbially. 



194 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

8. They both may be used absolutely. 

9. They both may be used independently. 
10. They both may be used as object of 

preposition. 

Difference. 

1. None. 
As to modifiers they may take. 
Likeness. 

1. They both may take the adjective mod- 

ifier. 

2. They both may take the appositive 

modifier. 
Difference. 

1. The noun may take the possessive 
modifier, but the pronoun may not. 

It is apparent that no lesson on the noun and pro- 
noun will acquaint the student with the exact status of 
his knowledge of them better than such a one as this. 
It also makes the very best kind of review. 



CHAPTER XV. 

THE INDUCTIVE METHOD IN GRAMMAR. 

Nature of Inductive Method. — The inductive 
method was discussed to some extent in the first chapter 
of these studies under the head of the Laboratory 
method. It is a procedure in which the learner is led 
to observe, investigate and think for himself. It is 
opposed to taking things on mere authority in all cases 
where the learner may be led to investigate, and do 
original thinking. It is directly opposed to what is 
called the text-book method in teaching. By the induc- 
tive method the student is led to deal with the actual 
material of study rather than with what some one has 
said about it. In studying botany by the inductive 
method, the learner deals with plants; in studying 
zoology, with animals; in studying chemistry, with 
chemicals; in studying grammar, with sentences and 
parts of sentences. 

As the inductive method, it gets its name from the 
mental process of inductive reasoning, or induction. In- 
duction, also, studied in a previous chapter, is the 
mind's process in going from the examination of par- 
ticular objects to some general truth about these objects. 
It begins with the study of particular objects and ends 
by reaching a judgment whos(^ subject is an idea of a 



196 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

class and whose predicate is an idea of some attribute 
or truth asserted of the class. It goes from the par- 
ticular to the general. 

Illustration. — Five nouns have been examined, and 
each has been found to be a substantive word which 
names the idea of an object. So the mind reasons this 
way: 

These words are all nouns. 

These words are all substantive words which name 
ideas of objects. 

Therefore, nouns are substantive words which name 
the ideas of objects. 

It is to be noted here that the mind starts by study- 
ing particulars and from this study reaches a truth 
about the class, nouns; that is, a general truth. This 
truth is, that they are all substa7itive words which name 
the ideas of objects. 

The Inductive Method and Definition. — Definition 
in several of its aspects was studied in the last chapter, 
and holding in mind what was learned there, the study 
may profitably be pushed further here in connection 
with the inductive method. Naturally the mind always 
employs the inductive method in making definitions. 

Illustration. — The mind starts out to make a defini- 
tion of the sentence, and naturally studies sentences, 
one, two, three, four or more, seeing that each of them 
is a language unit which expresses a thought. It then 
thinks the definition, A sentence is a language unit 
which expresses a thought. A study of this process 
shows that there are here to be found six instances of 



THE INDUCTIVE METHOD IN GRAMMAR. 197 

inductive reasoning, the mind thus making extensive 
use of the inductive method. 

When the mind examines the first sentence it 
reasons as follows: This is a sentence; this is a lan- 
guage unit which expresses a thought; therefore, the 
sentence (so far as seen) is a language unit which ex- 
presses a thought. 

This process is repeated with each particular case, 
the mind becoming firmer in its belief all the time that 
it was right at first. Thus the whole process of thus 
defining the sentence is predominantly one of induction. 
There is deduction involved, but it is subordinate to the 
induction. 

There must have been a time when no one knew 
grammatical definitions, and the only conceivable way 
that they could have been originally made was from 
the study of particular cases of the thing defined. But 
making definitions from the study of particular things 
is the employment of the inductive method. 

Again, if all text-books on grammar should be si- 
multaneously destroyed and all persons should forget all 
grammatical definitions, it would be only a short time 
before definitions would appear again. But how would 
minds form them? By studying particular cases and 
making definitions from such study. There is no other 
way. But this again is by the use of the inductive 
method. 

The Mind's Natural Way of Defining. — From the 
study of the inductive method, definition, conception 
and inductive reasoning, but one conclusion concerning 



198 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

how the mind naturally defines is possible; namely, the 
mind naturally employs the inductive method in de- 
fining. 

This may be systematized again by saying the 
mind's natural way of getting definitions is as follows: 

1. The mind studies particular objects of the class 
to be defined. 

2. The mind selects out the common truths of the 
particular objects. 

3. The mind makes a synthesis of these common 
truths in the form of a thought. 

Objections. — The one and only legitimate objection 
which can be urged against leading students to form 
their own definitions in this way from the study of par- 
ticular cases is that in some subjects the particular 
cases can not be had for first-hand study. But this 
objection does not hold for grammar, for the particu- 
lars to be studied are sentences and parts of sentences. 
This material may be always present. 

There is much ado made these times about teach- 
ing chemistry, botany, zoology, geology, etc., induc- 
tively, and a teacher is regarded far behind the times 
who does not teach them so. But of all the subjects 
that may be taught inductively no other one is so easily 
so taught as grammar; and yet, grammar is actually 
so taught less than any other one. Such a condition is 
entirely unwarranted. 

The Correct Way To Teach Definition. — If the 
mind's natural way of making definitions is a guide as 
to the correct method of teaching definitions, all defini- 



THE INDUCTIVE METHOD IN GRAMMAR. 199 

tions in grammar properly taught must be taught by 
the inductive method. That is to say, particular cases 
of the thing to be studied are to be placed before the 
student. He is to be led by questions to discover for 
himself the truths common to the particular cases, and 
asked to state them as essential ideas. And as a last 
step in the process he is to be asked to make a synthesis 
of these common truths in the form of a thought; that 
is, he is asked to make the definition. 

From the teacher's point of view the steps in 
teaching definitions in grammar are as follows : 

1. Place before the learner a list of good sentences, 
and underscore, if necessary, the terms which are espec- 
ially to be studied. 

2. Ask a list of good questions; that is, a list of 
questions which will lead the learner to discover for 
himself, so far as possible, the essential common truths 
of the particulars to be studied. 

3. Ask the learner to state these common truths 
as essential ideas. 

4. Ask the learner to make the definition. 

Illustration. — Subject of the lesson is the noun and 
pronoun. The students have previously studied the 
classes of words on the basis of what they express and 
so know well the meaning of substantive word. They 
also know what it means to name a thing. 

NOUN AND PRONOUN. 

1. That rose is very beautiful. 

2. The oriole builds a hanging nest. 



200 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

3. One should cultivate a love for beauty. 

4. John is an Industrious boy. 

5. William was rewarded for his industry. 

6. He is known to be honest. 

7. / gave it to him. 

What do the italicized words in the above sentences 
express? On the basis of what they express what kind 
of words are they? How do those in the first five sen- 
tences differ from those in sentences six and seven? 
Those in the first five sentences are nouns; those in sen- 
tences six and seven are pronouns. How does the noun 
differ from the pronoun? 

Give the essential ideas of the noun; also, of the 
pronoun. 

Define the noun. Define the pronoun. 

Answers: The italicized words express ideas of 
objects. They are substantive words. Those in the first 
five sentences name their objects, while those in sen- 
tences six and seven do not. The noun names an object, 
while the pronoun does not. The essential ideas of the 
noun are: 1. The noun is a substantive word. 2. The 
noun names its object. The essential ideas of the pro- 
noun are: 1. The pronoun is a substantive word. 
2. It does not name its object. The noun is a suhstan- 
tive word which names its object. The pronoun is a 
substantive word which does not name its object. 

Comparison of the Two Ways. — Definition is often 
taught in grammar by assigning as a lessons formal 
statements of definitions to be learned from a text-book 
and committed to memory. This way consists simply 



THE INDUCTIVE METHOD IN GRAMMAR. 201 

in learning what some one has worked out on the sub- 
ject. The learner does not at all live the experience 
which leads to the definition. 

This kind of work makes the learner dependent and 
helpless, and gives him an undue respect for the text- 
book. He grows into thinking that the subject is to be 
found between the lids of the book. He gets into an 
attitude of mind which causes him to accept it because 
the book says so. This way of learning definitions lacks 
direct interest, is unnatural, and often is nothing more 
than the verbal memory of meaningless terms. It is al- 
ways liable to degenerate into this kind of work, and, 
in fact, it can scarcely be avoided. It cultivates memory, 
the kind of memory which breaks down the ability to 
think accurately and readily. It produces the appear- 
ance of understanding without the reality. 

Herbert Spencer says on this point : "To give the 
net product of inquiry, without the inquiry that leads 
to it, is found to be both enervating and inefficient. 
General truths to be of due and permanent use, must 
be earned. 'Easy come easy go' is a saying as applica- 
ble to knowledge as to wealth. While rules (defini- 
tions), lying isolated in the mind — not joined to its 
other contents as outgrowths from them — are contin- 
ually forgotten, the principles which those rules express 
piece-meal, become, when once reached by the under- 
standing, enduring possessions. While the rule-taught 
youth is at sea when beyond his rules, the youth in- 
structed in principles solves a new case as readily as an 
old one. Between a mind of rules and a mind of prin- 



202 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

ciples, there exists a difference such as that between a 
confused heap of materials, and the same materials or- 
ganized into a complete whole, with all its parts bound 
together. ' ' 

Advantages of the Inductive Method. — The advan- 
tages of the inductive method in grammar are many. 
The following are some of them: 

1. It is the mind's natural way of learning gram- 
mar. 

2. It makes students independent and self -helpful. 

3. It gives students the habit of free inquiry and 
free investigation. 

4. It establishes a critical habit of mind. 

5. It makes grammar a subject full of direct in- 
terest. 

6. It makes grammar a subject unexcelled by any 
in giving mental discipline in (1) accurate observation, 
(2) comparison and contrast, (3) abstraction, (4) gen- 
eralization, (5) inductive reasoning, (6) identification, 
and (7) the kind of memory that does not break down 
the ability to think accurately and readily. 

Dr. Arnold Tompkins says the following of defini- 
tion taught by the inductive method: "It (definition) 
is a process of thinking which brings into unity the in- 
dividual and the universal — the problem of all thought, 
and which brings the learner into unity with the world 
of thought, the end of all learning. This is its primary 
educational value. 

The power to discern unity in the midst of diver- 
sity; to detect essential likenesses amidst engrossing and 



THE INDUCTIVE METHOD IN GRAMMAR. 203 

non-essential differences ; to find the enduring under the 
mask of obtruding, accidental and superficial attributes, 
is a fundamental characteristic of every well-trained 
mind. To define is not simply to unify individuals; 
but, in unifying, to find their essential nature. The 
common nature in which they are unified is the essen- 
tial nature of each individual. Hence the habit of 
thinking in the form of definition is the habit of think- 
ing the true nature of things; which is the primary 
function of mind. 

This unifying act of mind is complex; and has a 
richer significance in training than at first appears. It 
requires accurate, thorough, and methodical observation ; 
precise discrimination through comparison and contrast; 
abstraction of that which abides after differences have 
been canceled; and generalization, by holding in mind 
the difference of individuals while binding them into 
the unity of their common nature. So that while train- 
ing to correct habits of definition, the teacher is carry- 
ing forward a large number of related habits. Too 
much can not be said, therefore, by way of urging the 
teacher to train the student in the power of logical 
definition, since it is a form of activity by which he 
comes into unity with the world of thought. 

Definitions are usually treated as mere formal 
statements to be recited and lodged away in the memory, 
rather than thought processes of defining in funda- 
mental forms of activity." 

*'To reap the best results, the formal statement of 
a definition should not be made until the student has 



204 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

had a full experience of all the subordinate processes 
on which the definition is based. In some cases, days, 
or even weeks, should be spent in observing, compar- 
ing and contrasting, abstracting, and generalizing, be- 
fore any effort is made to formulate a definition. The 
formal definition of an infinitive is the last step in the 
process and not the first, as usually given. A definition 
made in this way, when asked for in reproduction, will 
not be remembered as a form of words; but the entire 
experience in making the definition will, in brief, be 
repeated. Definitions made in this way can not be for- 
gotten; or, if forgotten, may be reconstructed on a 
moment's notice." 



CHAPTER XVI. 



BASIS IN GRAMMAR. 



Basis for the Sentence. — The starting point proper 
in teaching grammar is the sentence, and the first work 
to be done with the sentence is to lead the learner to 
study its nature. To study the nature of the sentence 
is to study how it was born, that is, how it came to be. 
We know that the sentence was born of a desire to com- 
municate a thought. So in order to understand the 
nature of the sentence the nature of the thought must 
be understood. The nature of the thought can not be 
understood, how^ever, without knowing what an idea is, 
and an idea can not be well understood without a knowl- 
edge of its symbol, the word. Ideas are, in general, the 
mind's activities appropriate to objects, attributes and 
relatio7is. These three, objects, attributes, and relations 
make up the universe. There is nothing which is not an 
object or an attribute or a relation. Ideas thus origi- 
nate in the mind from the consideration of objects, at- 
tributes and relations. Thus to undertsand well an idea, 
an object, an attribute, and a relation must be under- 
stood. Therefore, to build up the basis for teaching the 
nature of the sentence well, objects, attributes, relations, 
ideas, words, and thoughts must be understood. 



206 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

The following outline shows the adequate basis for 
teaching the sentence : 

I. The object. 

1^. Classes. 

12. Material. 
2^. Immaterial. 
2\ Attributes. 
V. Classes. 
1^. Quality. 
2^ Condition. 
3^ Action. 
3\ Relations. 

II. Idea. 

1\ Symbol. 
2^. Word. 
1^ Classes. 

1*. Substantive. 
2*. Attributive. 
3*. Relational. 
4*. Feeling. 
5*. Form. 

III. Thought. 

1^ Elements of. 
r. Subject. 
2^. Copula. 
32. Predicate. 

2\ Symbol of. 
12. Sentence. 



BASIS IN GRAMMAR. 207 

Principles Underlying Basis. — Basis, as has been 
said before, means the points of knowledge the child 
already has upon which one can build in teaching any 
new point or points of knowledge. The principles of 
mind upon which basis is founded are as follows: 

1. The mind naturally goes to the unknown from 
the nearest related known. 

2. The mind from its organic nature best grasps, 
and retains that which is well organized. 

The mind can go no other way in learning than from 
the known to the unknown, but it makes much differ- 
ence whether it attempts to go from the nearest related 
known to the unknown, or Avhether it attempts to go to 
the unknown from some remotely related known. It 
also makes much difference whether there is any closely 
related known from which the mind can go to the un- 
known. 

Illustration. — The mind in defining the adjective 
does not naturally think that the adjective is a thing, 
though it is the truth; but it thinks the adjective is an 
attributive word, a class of known things, and then nar- 
rows it down further. A thing is known, but is not as 
closely related to the adjective as an attributive word, 
another known thing. 

It is well known that those things which are taught 
in a fragmentary, unorganized, unsystematic manner 
are difficult to grasp and difficult to remember, while 
work well organized is much more easily grasped and 
much more easily remembered. This is true because 



208 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

only in that which is well organized are the relations 
traced out and emphasized. 

The second principle, as well as the first, underly- 
ing basis makes it imperative that in teaching any sub- 
ject it be progressively developed, each step taken form- 
ing a basis for the next step in the subject. Geometry 
well illustrates this point, but it is equally true in 
developing the subject of grammar. 

Violation of Basis. — There are many violations of 
basis in grammar as treated in text-books on the subject 
and as usually taught. These occur in two ways. First, 
a subject is treated for which the basis has not been 
given, or an attempt is made to teach a lesson for which 
the basis has not been worked out. 

Secondly, subjects are treated and lessons taught in 
such a way that use is not made of the basis the learner 
has . Both are very bad and detract from habits of 
careful thinking. 

Illustration. — A text-book in treating the grammat- 
ical properties of a noun gives the following statement 
for the objective case: ''The objective case is the use of 
a noun or pronoun as the object of a transitive verb in 
the active voice or of its participles." The transitive 
verb and active voice had not been worked out before 
and participles had had mere mention. 

Again, the definition for the preposition, ''A prep- 
osition is a word which shows the relation between its 
object and some other word," violates basis. The 
meaning of the ''object of a preposition" is not worked 



BASIS IN GRAMMAR. 209 

out in the text up to this place, nor is it worked out 
afterward, for that matter. 

A teacher often attempts to teach case without hav- 
ing carefully worked out the many ways a substantive 
is used in the sentence. Or he attempts to teach the 
nature of the sentence without having carefully worked 
out the meaning of the thought. 

The mistake in each case is one of violation of 
basis. 

Further Illustration. — The definition for a relative 
pronoun, '*A relative pronoun is a word used to repre- 
sent a preceding word or expression called its antecedent 
to which it joins a modifying clause," is a violation of 
basis in that it does not use what the learner has already 
acquired. The pupil has already learned what a pro- 
noun is, or he has no occasion to study the relative pro- 
noun, and this knowledge should be used as a basis in 
defining the relative pronoun. 

The mind knows what a pronoun is, and to define 
the relative pronoun has only to set it off from other 
pronouns to define it according to the laws of defini- 
tion. This it is able to do as soon as it sees that the 
relative pronoun has a connective use in the sentence. 

The natural definition for the relative pronoun is 
as follows : A relative pronoun is a pronoun which has 
a connective use in the sentence. The learner's knowl- 
edge of a pronoun is thus used as a basis for learning 
the relative pronoun. 

Work in Harmony with Basis. — To start in gram- 
mar teaching and work all the time in harmony with 



210 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

basis, the work must proceed somewhat as follows: 

Objects, attributes, and relations must be taught 
as basis for teaching the idea. Substantive, attributive 
and relational ideas must be taught as a basis for teach- 
ing the word, and the classes of the word; also, as a 
basis for teaching the thought. The thought and its 
elements must be taught as a basis for teaching the 
sentence and its elements. The sentence and its ele- 
ments must be taught as a basis for teaching the classes 
of sentences, and for teaching the various parts of the 
sentence. And so on through the whole subject. 

The advantages of working in harmony with basis 
are those which accrue from the natural and progressive 
unfolding of the subject. Some of them are as follows : 1. 
Economy of time and energy. 2. Right habits of think- 
ing. 3. Right methods of study. 4. Interest in the sub- 
ject. 5. The cultivation of the right kind of memory, 
the kind that does not break down the ability to think 
skillfully, but aids in accurate thinking. 



CHAPTER XVII. 

STEPS IN GRAMMAR. 

Meaning of Steps. — Steps in any subject mean the 
various more or less definite advances the mind takes 
in mastering that subject. There are in the subject of 
grammar many distinct points of knowledge to be mas- 
tered, and the mentality, or mental activity, employed 
in mastering them constitutes the steps in grammar. 
Thus the mental activity corresponding to the noun, the 
mental activity corresponding to the pronoun, and the 
mental activity corresponding to the adverb are steps 
in grammar. Such large steps as these are of course 
analyzable into smaller steps. But in any event the 
separate advances of the mind are the steps in grammar. 

Order of Steps. — The question of most importance 
in grammar is the order of the steps. What shall be 
taught first, what shall be taught secondly, thirdly, and 
so on, is the important question for solution concerning 
steps. Here is a large amount of grammatical material 
to be taught, and it is possible to begin at various places, 
and move forward in various ways. What shall be the 
order in which these various points of grammatical ma- 
terial shall be taught? Or does it make any difference 
what order the various truths of the subject are 
taught in? 



212 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

The examination of text-books will not solve this 
problem, for no two books are to be found which en- 
tirely agree in their order of presenting grammar work. 

However, text-books on grammar in general follow 
two plans. First, in most of the older texts and in some 
of the newer ones, the parts of speech together with their 
grammatical properties constitute the first part of the 
book. In these same books, the second part is made up 
of an exposition of the sentence, taken up as a whole, its 
elements, both essential and modifying, and syntax. 

Secondly, books that follow the other plan just re- 
verse this order. The sentence as a whole, its elements, 
both essential and modifying, etc., constitute, according 
to this plan the first part of the book, the second part 
consisting of the exposition of the parts of speech and 
their grammatical properties. 

Help on the Problem. — In the search for a correct 
solution to the problem of the right order of teaching 
the various subjects in grammar help may be had in ob- 
serving the human mind and its natural mode of acting. 
As in the solution of every educational problem, so in 
the solution of this one the ultimate source of guidance 
is found in a knowledge of how the mind naturally 
works. 

A little reflection reveals to us that the mind naturally 
grasps any object as a whole, first, in order to compre- 
hend it in its oneness, in general; next the mind pro- 
ceeds to break the object up into its larger parts, and to 
grasp them as wholes, and in relation to the whole ob- 
ject; next the parts are broken up into smaller parts. 



STEPS IN GRAMMAR. 213 

and it may be that these in turn are analyzed into 
smaller parts; and thus the mind goes on, and on. 
This the mind 7iaturally does whether its activity be 
appropriate to a tree, a sewing machine, a lily, a poem, 
a problem in arithmetic, an original solution in geom- 
etry, or a sentence. If any one is not certain of this 
point, he has only to watch his own natural mental ac- 
tivity in taking up any new object of study, to prove 
its truth satisfactorily. 

The Mind's Attitude Toward the Sentence. — From 
the foregoing study, it is evident that the mind natu- 
rally grasps the sentence as a whole, first; then it pro- 
ceeds to break it up into its largest parts; then into the 
next smaller and so on through the subject. 

Thus if we can determine in our study what the 
parts of grammar are in the order indicated, we will 
have the mind's natural order of taking up the subject 
of grammar. And this can be determined by studying 
what the mind can do with the sentence as a whole in 
grammar. 

First, it can study its nature; secondly, it can de- 
fine it ; it can classify sentences on two bases, form and 
meaning. This from the meaning basis gives declarative^ 
interrogative, imperative and exclamatory sentences; 
and from the form basis, simple^ complex and com- 
pound sentences. These classes can be studied as to 
nature, definition, classification, and relation. 

After these general ideas are viewed from the 
thought side, the mind naturally seeks to verify the 
conclusions reached. This it does by exercises in iden- 



214 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

tifying particulars. For instance, if the mind studies 
the simple sentence and reaches the general idea, that 
a simple sentence is a sentence ivhich expresses a single 
thought, it looks then for examples of simple sentences 
to justify its conclusions. 

After thus dealing with the sentence as a whole, it 
would next be broken up into its largest parts. These, 
the largest parts of the sentence, are its essential ele- 
ments, the subject, the predicate, and the copula. 

The nature, definition, classes, and relation of these 
one to another, the mind would trace out. These gen- 
eral ideas having been worked out from the thought 
side by the inductive method, the mind naturally would 
seek again to verify its conclusions by exercises in iden- 
tification. 

In the next general movement the essential elements 
of the sentence would be broken up into the following: 
1. On the meaning side, into principal and modifying 
elements. 2. On the form side, into words, phrases and 
clauses. Modifying elements would be broken up into: 

1. Substantive modifiers. 2. Attributive modifiers, and 
these into their subclasses. 

The next general movement in the breaking up 
process would give the parts of speech, and these would 
come in something like the following order: 1. Noun. 

2. Pronoun. 3. Verb. 4. Adjective. 5. Adverb. 6. 
Preposition. 7. Conjunction. 8. Interjection. 

This is, in general, the order in which the mind 
would naturally take up the subject of grammar. There 
may be places where minor variations in the order 



STEPS IN GRAMMAR. 215 

should be made depending upon the circumstances under 
which the subject is taught. 

As a rule, the mind's natural way of doing any 
school work should be sought out and followed as nearly 
as possible, since it is not only rational, but most eco- 
nomical. So any great departure from this general order 
is to be avoided. 

The following outline will indicate in a general way 
a good order of teaching the subject, grammar: 

I. The object. 
1^. Classes. 

V. Material. 
2^. Inunaterial. 
2^. Attributes. 
1^. Classes. 
1^ Quality. 
2^. Condition. 
3^. Action. 
3^. Eelations. 

II. Idea. 

1\ Classes. 

1^. Substantive. 
2". Attributive. 
3^. Relational. 
2\ Symbol of. 
IK Word. 

1^. Classes on basis of what they express. 
1*. Substantive. 
2*. Attributive. 
3*. Relational. 



216 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

4*. Feeling. 
5*. Form. 

III. Thought. 
1^ Elements. 
1^. Subject. 
2^. Predicate. 
32. Copula. 

2\ Symbol of. 

Down to this point in the outline the work is en- 
tirely basis for teaching the sentence. This work on 
basis is important and should be carefully worked out. 
One can not rightly presume that the average student 
has adequate basis for beginning the grammar work 
proper. 

1^. Sentence. 
1^. Nature of. 
2^. Definition of. 

1*. Nature of definition in general. 
3^. Classes on basis of meaning. 

1*. Declarative. 

2*. Imperative. 

3*. Interrogative. 

4*. Exclamatory. 

4^. Classes on basis of form of thought 
expressed. 
1*. Simple. 
2*. Complex. 
3*. Compound. 
Down to this point in the outline the mind is work- 



STEPS IN GRAMMAR. 217 

ing with the sentence as a whole. It has not yet begun 
to study the sentence in its parts. 
5^. Elements of. 
1*. Essential. 
1^. Subject. 

1^. Classes on basis of form. 
1^ Word. 
2\ Phrase. 
3^. Clause. 
2\ Predicate. 

1^ Classes on basis of form. 
V. Word. 
2^ Phrase. 
3^ Clause. 
2^ Classes on basis of what they 
express. 
V. Substantive. 
2\ Attributive. 
3^ Copula. 
2*. Modifying. 

1^ Classes on basis of what they 
express. 
1^. Substantive. 
1^ Objective. 
2\ Substantive-adverbial. 
3''. Appositive. 
4''. Possessive. 
2^ Attributive. 
1^. Adjective. 
2^ Adverbial. 



218 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

Down to this point in the outline the mind has been 
dealing with the elements of the sentence, since it began 
upon the parts of the sentence. The next break up 
gives the parts of speech, which follow: 
IV. Parts of speech. 
1^ Noun. 
1^. Classes. 
1^. Proper. 
2^. Common. 
1*. Classes. 
1^ Class. 
2^. Abstract. 
3^ Mass. 
2^. Grammatical properties. 
1^. Gender. 
1*. Classes. 

1^. Masculine. 
2^. Feminine. 
3^. Common. 
4^ Neuter. 
2^. Person. 
1*. Classes. 
1^ First. 
2^ Second. 
3^ Third. 
3^. Number. 
1'^. Classes. 
1°. Singular. 
2\ Plural. 
4^. Case. 



STEPS IN GRAMMAR. 219 

1*. Classes. 

1^. Nominative. 
2^. Objective. 
3^. Possessive. 
Pronoun. 
1^. Classes. 
1^. Personal. 
2^ Relative. 
3^. Interrogative. 
2^. Grammatical properties. 

1^. Same as noun. , 

3^. Inflection. 

1^. Declension. 
Verb. 

1^. Classes on basis of what they express. 
1^. Pure. 
2^. Attributive. 
1*. Classes. 

1^. Transitive. 
2^. Intransitive. 
2^. Classes on basis of form. 
1^. Regular. 
2^. Irregular. 
3^. Classes on basis of rank. 
1^. Principal. 
2^. Auxiliary. 
4^. Classes on basis of number of parts. 
1^. Complete. 
2^. Defective. 
3^. Redundant. 



220 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

5^. Classes on the basis of whether it asserts. 
1^. Finite. 
2^. Infinite. 
1*. Classes. 

1^. Infinitive. 
1^. Nature. 
2^. Classes. 
3®. Use in sentence. 
2^. Participle. 
1®. Nature. 
2®. Classes. 
3^. Use in sentence. 
6^. Grammatical properties. 
1^. Voice. 
1*. Classes. 
1^. Active. 
2^. Passive. 
2^ Mode. 

1*. Classes on basis of meaning. 
1^. Indicative. 
2^. Subjunctive. 
3^ Potential. 
4^. Imperative. 
3^ Tense. 
1*. Classes. 
1^ Absolute. 
1®. Present. 
2«. Past. 
3^ Future. 
2\ Relative. 



STEPS IN GRAMMAR. 221 

1^. Present perfect. 
2^. Past perfect. 
3^. Future perfect. 
7^. Inflection of. 
1^. Conjugation. 
4}. Adjective. 

1^. Classes on the basis of the way they affect 
the meaning of the substantive. 

1^. Descriptive. 

2^. Limiting. 

3^. Limiting-descriptive. 

2^. Classes on basis of non-attributive use. 

1^. Interrogative. 

2\ Relative. 
3^. Inflection. 

1^. Comparison. 
5\ Adverb. 

1^. Classes on basis of non-attributive use. 
1^. Interrogative. 
2^. Conjunctive. 
2^. Inflection. 

1^. Comparison. 
6^. Preposition. 
7^. Conjunction. 

1^. Classes on the basis of kind of relation 
expressed. 
1^. Coordinate. 
2^. Subordinate. 
8^ Interjection. 



222 PRA.CTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

This outline is not exhaustive at all. It is merely 
suggestive, and so can be followed by any teacher with- 
out detracting from the teacher's individuality. At 
nearly all places much material must be filled in, in 
actual grammar teaching. Whenever the general ideas 
are worked out, there must be an abundance of work 
given in identification to the end of fixing in the mind 
of the learner these general ideas. For instance, if the 
definition for the subject, copula, and predicate of the 
sentence have been worked out, the pupils should have 
an abundance of practice in picking out subjects, predi- 
cates and copulas in many various sentences. They 
should give their reasons for making these identifica- 
tions, too. This is the natural procedure of the mind 
after having formed general ideas. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

ILLUSTRATIONS, 

Purpose. — It is the purpose of these illustrations in 
grammar lessons to show how the subject of grammar 
may be taught inductively; that is, to show how the 
learner may be led to work out the subject for himself 
in a way perfectly natural to him. 

The lessons illustrated will in general follow the 
outline given in the preceding chapter. 

THE OBJECT. 

1. The robin is a friendly bird. 

2. Longfellow had good ideas of life. 

3. The sea is the home of many curious things. 

4. Water is composed of two gases. 

5. The maple is a beautiful tree. 

6. Love is the mainspring of all human activity. 

7. The student was rewarded for his industry. 

8. Virtue will bring its reward. 

9. Whittier loved truth and goodness. 

10. Hate and anger are not necessarily bad. 

Each of the italicized words in the above sentences 
expresses an idea of an object. 

What does one's mind do when he looks at each 
word, first ? What may one 's mind do secondly ? What 
is a first truth of each of the objects suggested by the 
italicized words? What is a second truth? 



224 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

Each of these truths is called an essential idea of an 
object. 

What are the essential ideas of an object? Define 
an object. What is the connection between the essential 
ideas of an object and its definition ? What is meant by 
the essential ideas of anything? 

How do the objects expressed by the italicized words 
in sentences one, two, three, four and five differ from 
the objects expressed by the italicized words in sen- 
tences six, seven, eight, nine and ten? 

Those expressed in the first five are called material 
objects; those in the last five, immaterial objects. 

What are the essential ideas of a material object; 
also, of an immaterial object? Define each. 

Answers to Above Questions. — When he looks at 
each word something comes into his mind. One's mind 
may think something of this thing. It is a thing. 
The mind may think about it. The essential ideas of 
an object are : 1. It is a thing. 2. The mind may think 
about it. An object is a thing about which the mind 
may think. The essential ideas of an object are to the 
definition as the parts of anything to the Avhole. The 
essential ideas of anything are just those separate points 
of which the definition is made. 

Those expressed in sentences one, two, three, four 
and five occupy space, while those expressed in sentences 
six, seven, eight, nine and ten do not. 

The essential ideas of a material object are: 1. It 
is an object. 2. It occupies space. The essential ideas of 
of an immaterial object are : 1. It is an object. 2. It 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 225 

does not occupy space. A material object is an object 
which occupies space. An immaterial object is an 
object which does not occupy space. 

The sentences and questions constitute the assign- 
ment for the lesson and are to be given to the students 
to study before going to the recitation. The answers are 
what would, in substance, be worked out in the recita- 
tion. Supplementary oral questions would have to be 
asked in the class on many of the points, no doubt. But 
the learner is ultimately to be led to make the answers, 
in substance, indicated. 

The next lesson should be one as follows: 

1. Fix in mind all the points we have had on the 
object and its classes. 

2. Point out the words in the following sentences 
which express objects, and tell whether the objects are 
material or immaterial: 

1. The pansy is a hardy flower. 

2. The blossom of the apple is much like a rose. 

3. Indiana has only three native red-birds. 

4. Hope builds a bridge across the gulf of death. 

5. The oriole builds a hanging nest. 

6. Truth, crushed to the earth, will rise again. 

7. Life should be full of earnest work. 

8. Hope springs eternal in the human breast. 

9. Emerson calls the bumble-bee an animated torrid 
zone. 

10. Beautiful days bring hope and cheer. 

11. Flowers brighten and bless mankind. 

12. A free people must be educated. 

13. A dainty plant is the ivy green. 

14. The famous Alexandrian library was burned by 



226 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

the Mohammedans. 

15. The loss of the library at Alexandria was a great 
misfortune to mankind. 

16. Indiana has more than sixteen thousand teachers 
in her schools. 

17. I am he of whom you spoke. 

18. Life is lord over death. 

19. The orchard is the home of many kinds of life. 

20. Man is the most progressive animal. 

ATTRIBUTES. 

1. Beautiful days are pleasant. 

2. Gold is yellow. 

3. Ice is cold. 

4. The oak is a stately tree. 

5. The stove is hot at present. 

6. The road is dusty to-day. 

7. She gave him a wilted rose. 

8. The happy children are singing. 

9. The running water babbles sweetly. 

10. I saw a meteor shooting across the sky. 

The italicized words in the above sentences express 
attributes. 

To what does each attribute belong? What does it 
do for its object? See the dictionary and give another 
term for attribute. What is a first truth of an attri- 
bute ; a second ? 

Give the essential ideas of an attribute. Define an 
attribute. 

. What do the attributes expressed in sentences, one, 
two, three and four make prominent in their objects? 
What do those expressed in sentences five, six and seven 
make prominent in their objects? What do those ex- 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 227 

pressed in sentences eight, nine and ten make prominent 
in their objects ? 

On the basis of what they make prominent in their 
objects how many classes of attributes in the above sen- 
tences? Suggest names for them. Give the essential 
ideas of each class. Define each class. 

Answers to the Above Questions. — Each attribute 
belongs to an object. It helps the mind in knowing 
the object. Mark, and characteristic, are other 
terms for an attribute. A first truth of an attribute is 
that it is a characteristic of an object; a second one, it 
helps the mind in knowing the object. 

The essential ideas of an attribute are : 1. It is a 
characteristic of an object. 2. It helps the mind in 
knowing the object. An attribute is a characteristic of 
an object which helps the mind in knowing the object. 

Those attributes expressed in sentences one, two, 
three and four make prominent the quality of the object. 
Those, in five, six, and seven, the condition of the object. 
Those, in eight, nine and ten, the changes of the object. 

On the basis of what they make prominent in their 
objects there are three classes of attributes expressed in 
the above sentences. Attributes of quality ^ attributes of 
condition, attributes of action. 

The essential ideas of an attribute of quality are: 

1. It is an attribute. 2. It makes prominent a 
quality of an object. The essential ideas of an attribute 
of condition are: 1. It is an attribute. 2. It makes 
prominent a condition of an object. The essential ideas 



228 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

of an attribute of action are: 1. It is an attribute. 
2. It makes prominent the changes of the object. 

An attribute of quality is an atty^ihute ivhich makes 
prominent a quality of an object. An attribute of con- 
dition is an attribute which makes prominent the condi- 
tion of an object. An attribute of action is an attribute 
which makes prominent the changes of an object. 

In this lesson, like the one on the object, and like 
several that will follow, the sentences and the questions 
constitute the assignment. The answers are those which 
in substance would be worked out in the discussion in the 
recitation. 

The next lesson should be as follows : Pick out the 
words which express attributes in the following sen- 
tences and tell what kind of attributes they are : 

1. Beautiful flowers are blooming in the pleasant 
grove. 

2. A bad beginning is likely to make a bad ending. 

3. The cheerful lad trudged along the dusty road. 

4. That dilapidated old wooden building has fallen. 

5. The genial summer days have come. 

6. The crocus blooms very early. 

7. The running brook babbles softly. 

8. Six feet are one fathom. 

9. The bad deeds of evil men sometimes result in 
some good. 

10. The verdant lawn, the shady grove, the variegated 
landscape, the boundless ocean, and the starry firmament 
are beautiful and magnificent objects. 

RELATION. 

1. The house on the hill is a church. 

2. Sponges are animals. 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 229 

3. The beautiful flower is a rose. 

4. Henry and Edward are worthy boys. 

5. He sprang across the brook. 

6. John studied with James. 

7. Art is long and time is fleeting. 

8. Many went but few returned. 

9. William or Edward will go. 

10. The bird flew through the window. 

The italicized words in the above sentences express 
relations. 

What do "on," "are," "is," "and," "across," 
"with" and so on do in the above sentences? How does 
the mind make connection between the ideas expressed 
by house and hill, sponges and animals, flower and rose, 
Henry and Edward, etc? What is a first truth of a 
relation; a second truth? What are the essential ideas 
of a relation? Define a relation. 

Answers to the Above Questions. — They express 
connections between ideas. The mind makes these con- 
nections by uniting the ideas as parts of the same ac- 
tivity. It is a connection between things; the mind 
makes it by making the things connected parts of one 
mental activity. 

The essential ideas of a relation are : 1. It is a con- 
nection between things. 2. The mind makes it by unit- 
ing things as parts of one activity. 

Relation is the connection the mind makes between 
things hy uniting them as parts of one activity. 

EXERCISE. 
Point out the words which express relation in the 



230 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

following sentences, and tell what they express relation 
between : 

1. Time and tide wait for no man, 

2. I come from the haunts of the coot and hern. 

3. The robin and the wren have flown 
And from the shrub the jay. 

4. John or James or I will go with you. 

5. That brave and fearless fireman has rushed into 
the house and up the burning stairs. 

6. A manly form at her side she saw 
And joy was duty and love was law. 

7. Hamilton smote the rock of national resources 
and abundant streams of revenue gushed forth. 

8. Washington and Lafayette fought for American 
Independence, 

9. Pride, poverty, and fashion can not live in the 
same house, 

10, Vapors rise from the ocean and fall upon the 
land. 

THE IDEA. 

1, The rose is a beautiful flower. 

2, Bryant is the poet of nature. 

3, The mushroom is a peculiar plant. 

4, Indianapolis is the capital of Indiana. 

5, The lily is beautiful. 

6, The ro'bin is migratory in northern Indiana, 

7, Industrious men are usually successful. 

8, All lahor is nohle and holy. 

9, Our daily tasks are our sacred duties. 
10. Life is a stern reality. 

Each italicized word in the above sentences ex- 
presses an idea. 

What kind of thing is that expressed by each word ? 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 231 

What difference is there between that expressed by each 
word and by each whole sentence? Can there be any 
simpler mental thing corresponding to things as wholes 
than those expressed by each word? 

Give the essential ideas of an idea. Define an idea. 

Answers to the Above Questions. — Each word ex- 
presses a mental thing — a mental product. Each word 
expresses a more simple thing than that expressed by 
each sentence. There can not; it is the simplest mental 
product. 

The essential ideas of an idea are : 1. It is a mental 
product. 2. It corresponds to something as a whole. 
3. There are no simpler mental products corresponding 
to things as wholes. An idea is the simplest mental 
product corresponding to a thing as a whole. 

CLASSES OF IDEAS. 

1. Mold, mushrooms and yeast are plants. 

2. Soldier^ rest; thy warfare is over. 

3. Why should the spirit of mortal be proud? 

4. The melancholy days are come. 

5. He was a magnanimous foe. 

6. The day is cold and dark and dreary. 

7. His sleep was calm as infant's slumber, 

8. He passed by on the other side, 

9. Let us then be up and doing, 
10, Mary or her sister will go. 

What do the underscored words in the first four 
sentences express ideas of ; that is, what do they suggest 
to the mind? What do those in the next three sentences 
express ideas of? What do those in the last three sen- 
tences express ideas of? On the basis of the kind of 



232 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

ideas they express how many classes of ideas expressed 
by the italicized words in these sentences? Suggest 
names for them. 

Give the essential ideas of each class. Define each 
class. 

Answers to the Above. — They express ideas of ob- 
jects. Those in the next three sentences express ideas 
of attributes. Those in the last three sentences express 
ideas of relations. There are three classes of ideas ex- 
pressed. Substantive ideas, attributive ideas, and rela- 
tional ideas are good names for them. 

The essential ideas of a substantive idea are : 1. It 
is an idea. 2. It corresponds to an object. The essen- 
tial ideas of an attributive idea are: 1. It is an idea. 
2. It corresponds to an attribute. The essential ideas 
of a relational idea are: 1. It is an idea. 2. It cor- 
responds to a relation. A substa^itive idea is an idea 
of an object. An attributive idea is an idea ofan attri- 
bute. A relational idea is an idea of a relation. 

EXERCISE. 

Study the following sentences and tell what kind of 
ideas the various words in them express : 

1. The violet is a modest flower. 

2. The clouds are flying across the sky. 

3. Longfellow is dear to the hearts of many people. 

4. Maud Muller, on a summer's day, 
Raked the meadow sweet with hay. 

5. Singing she wrought, and her merry glee 
The mock-bird echoed from his tree. 

6. Lightning and electricity were identified by 
Franklin. 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 233 

7. The circulation of blood was discovered by 
Harvey. 

8. Aristotle and Plato were the most distinguished 
philosophers of antiquity. 

9. The spirit of true religion is tolerant, social, kind 
and cheerful. 

10. The summit of the Alps is covered with perpetual 
snow. 

THE WORD. 

1. Beautiful flowers are ornaments of grove, field and 
hill. 

2. Faith, hope and charity are the three graces. 

3. Success in life depends upon intelligence, integrity 
and activity. 

4. The natural healthy child is almost incessantly ac- 
tive. 

6. The curfew tolls the knell of parting day. 

6. The guns fired at Concord were heard around the 
world. 

7. True worth is modest and retiring. 

8. There are four quarts in a gallon. 

9. There are people dying of hunger to-day. 
10. Hurrah! the field is won. 

What first is each italicized word? What do those 
in the first seven sentences do? From the italicized 
words in the first seven sentences, what are the essential 
ideas of a word? Give the definition of a word from 
these essential ideas. 

What do the italicized words in sentences eight and 
nine do? What does the italicized word in sentence 
ten do? From the study of the italicized words in all 
these sentences, what are the essential ideas of a word? 



234 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

What, the definition for the word? 

What is the specific function of the italicized words 
in the first three sentences ; in the fourth and fifth sen- 
tences ; in the sixth and seventh sentences ; in the eighth 
and ninth sentences ; of that in the tenth sentence ? 

On the basis of their function in the sentence, there 
are how many classes of words in the above sentences? 
Suggest names for them. Give the essential ideas of 
each class. Define each class. 

Answers to the Above. — Each of the italicized words 
is first a language unit. Those in the first seven sen- 
tences express ideas. The essential ideas of a word 
from the study so far are : 1. It is a language unit. 
2. It expresses an idea. And the definition from these 
essential ideas is: A word is the language unit which 
expresses an idea. 

The italicized words in sentences eight and nine 
fill out the form of the sentences. The one in ten ex- 
presses feeling in a general way. 

From the first and additional study the essential 
ideas of a word are seen to be: 1. It is a language 
unit. 2. It expresses an idea or fills out the form of 
the sentence or expresses feeling in a general way. A 
ivord is the language unit which expresses an idea or 
fills out the form of the sentence or expresses feeling in 
a general way. 

The words in the first three sentences express sub- 
stantive ideas; those in the next two sentences, attribu- 
tive ideas ; those in six and seven, relational ideas ; those 
in eight and nine, merely fill out the form of the sen- 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 235 

tence; that in the tenth, expresses feeling in a general 
way. 

There are five classes: substantive word, attribu- 
tive word, relational word, expletive and feeling word. 

The essential ideas of the substantive word are: 

1. It is a word. 2. It expresses a substantive idea. The 
essential ideas of an attributive word are : It is a word. 

2. It expresses an attributive idea. The essential 
ideas of a relational word are : 1. It is a 
word. 2. It expresses a relational idea. The essential 
ideas of an expletive are : 1. It is a word. 2. It merely 
fills out the form of the sentence. The essential ideas 
of the feeling word are : 1. It is a word. 2. It ex- 
presses feeling in a general way. 

A substantive word is a word which expresses a 
substantive idea. An attributive word is a word which 
expresses an attributive idea. A relational word is a 
word which expresses a relational idea. An expletive is 
a word which does not express an idea, but is used merely 
to fill out the form of the sentence. A feeling word is a 
word which does not express an idea, but expresses feel- 
ing in a general way. 

EXERCISE. 

1. Our flag is red, white and blue. 

2. Many beautiful lilies grow in Japan. 

3. Mary and Lucy gathered and pressed violets and 
buttercups. 

4. O, there are people shivering with cold to-night. 

5. Now then, let us proceed. 



236 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

6. In peace children bury their parents; in war, 
parents bury their children, 

7. Now, Barrabas was a robber. 

8. Charity creates much of the misery it relieves, 
but does not relieve all the misery it creates. 

9. Know, then, this truth, enough for man to know, 
Virtue alone is happiness below. 

10. The poor and the rich, the weak and the strong, 
the young and the old, have one common Father. 

11. It was morning on hill and stream and tree. 
And morning in the young knight's heart. 

12. The castle gate stands open now. 

13. Alas! the last ray of hope has fled. 

14. Hurrah! victory is assured. 

15. He shrugged his shoulders, shook his head, cast 
up his eyes, but said nothing. 

THE THOUGHT. 

1. Man is an animal. 

2. Plants grow. 

3. The bird is singing. 

4. The happy children are playing. 

5. Industrious men are not always successful. 

6. Go. 

7. Excused. 

8. Coal is a fuel. 

9. The wounded bird fell to the ground. 
10. Life is both sunshine and shadows. 

What does each of the above sentences express? 
What first of all is a thought. How does the mind form 
a thought? 

What are the essential ideas of a thought? Define 
a thought. 

How many ideas must every thought have in it? 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 237 

Why? How many elements has every thought? Show. 
Suggest names for them. Give the essential ideas for 
each of the elements of the thought. Define each of the 
elements of the thought. 

Answers. — Each of the above sentences expresses a 
thought. Each is first of all a mental product. The 
mind forms a thought by asserting the relation between 
two ideas. 

The essential ideas of a thought are: 1. It is a men- 
tal product. 2. It is formed by the mind's thinking 
the relation between two ideas. A thought is a mental 
product which the mind forms hy asserting the relation 
between two ideas. 

Every thought must have in it three ideas, at the 
least. There must be two ideas for a relation to exist 
between; and there must be an idea of the relation 
between them. Every thought has three elements. It 
must have one element about which an assertion is 
made; a second one which is the idea asserted, and a 
third one which is the assertion. They are the subject 
of thought, the predicate of thought and the copula of 
thought. 

The essential ideas of the subject of thought are: 
1. It is an element of thought. 2. Something is asserted 
of it. The essential ideas of the predicate of thought 
are: 1. It is an element of thought. 2. It is the idea 
which is asserted of the subject of thought. The essen- 
tial ideas of the copula of thought are : 1. It is an 
idea. 2. It asserts the relation between the subject of 
thought and the predicate of thought. 



238 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

The subject of thought is that element of the 
thought of which something is asserted. The predicate 
of thought is that element of thought which is asserted 
of the subject of thought. The copula of thought is that 
element of thought which, assei^ts the relation between 
the subject of thought and the predicate of thought. 

THE SENTENCE. 

1. Man is mortal. 

2. The tree is green. 

3. Shut the door. 

4. Excused. 

5. The whale is not a fish. 

6. The black-snake is harmless. 

7. The quail is a good friend to man. 

8. In the field. 

9. On the lake. 

10. A fine red apple. 

What is each of the above? What first is each of 
the first seven that the last three are not? What do 
the first seven do? What do the last three do? How 
do the first seven differ from the last three? 

Suggest a name for the first seven; for the last 
three. 

Give the essential ideas of the sentence. Define 
the sentence. 

Answers. — Each is a word or group of words. The 
first seven are complete wholes; that is, they are lan- 
guage units. The first seven express thoughts. The 
last three express only related ideas. The first seven 
differ from the last three in that the first seven are 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 239 

complete and express thoughts while the last three are 
not complete and express only related ideas. 

The first seven are sentences; the last three, phrases. 

The essential ideas of the sentence are: 1. It is a 
language unit. 2. It expresses a thought. The sentence 
is the language unit which expresses a thought. 

CLASSES OF SENTENCES ON BASIS OF MEANING. 

1. Dewey is called the hero of Manila. 

2. A successful life is usually one of intense activity. 

3. Strength is born of struggle, 

4. Go, thou, and do likewise. 

5. Prepare for your work. 

6. Lead us not into temptation. 

7. Who invented the steamboat? 

8. Where do the lilies grow? 

9. Mercy, how it rains! 

10. O, what a sad calamity this is! 

What is the purpose of the first three sentences? 
What is the purpose of the second three sentences? How 
do they accomplish their purpose? What are the seventh 
and eighth sentences addressed to the mind for? What 
are the ninth and tenth sentences used for? 

On the basis of their purpose, how many classes of 
sentences are there in the above group ? Suggest names 
for them. 

Give definitions for each of these classes of sen- 
tences. 

Answers. — The purpose of the first three sentences 
is to give information. The purpose of the second three 
is to influence conduct. They do this by expressing a 



240 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

command. The seventh and eighth are addressed to the 
mind to seek some response. The ninth and tenth are 
used to arouse feeling. 

On the basis of their purpose, there are four classes 
of sentences in the above group : declarative, imperative, 
interrogative and exclamatory. 

The declarative sentence is that kind of sentence 
whose purpose is to give information. The imperative 
sentence is that kind of sentence whose purpose is to 
influence conduct hy a command. The interrogative 
sentence is that kind of sentence whose purpose is to 
seek some response. The exclamatory sentence is that 
kind of sentence whose purpose is to arouse feeling. 

EXERCISE. 

1. Benevolence should be a duty and a pleasure. 

2. Lead us into some far-off sunny land. 

3. Shall we gather at the river? 

4. Death said, "Shall I have naught that is fair?" 

5. The old man said, "Try not the pass!" 

6. Ask yourself this question, What is my aim in 
life? 

7. The question is, Will he do as well as he knows? 

8. What flower is this that greets the morn? 

9. Beware the pine-tree's withered branch! 

10. Life is real! Life is earnest! 

11. Reputation is what men and women think of us. 

12. I wish that you would close the door. 

13. How dear to this heart are the scenes of mr 

childhood 
When fond recollection presents them to view! 

14. O, a wonderful stream is the river of Time. 

15. Faith is born of doubt. 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 241 

16. Be still, sad heart, and cease repining. 

17. Good nature, like a bee, collects honey from every 
herb. 

18. Ill nature, like a spider, sucks poison from the 
sweetest flower. 

CLASSES OF SENTENCES ON BASIS OF FORM. 

1. The soul lives. 

2. The golden lines of sunset glow. 

3. All names of the Deity should begin with a capital 
letter. 

4. Columbus was born at Genoa, Italy. 

5. Hydrogen and oxygen united constitute water. 

6. Animals that have back bones are called verte- 
brates. 

7. Crime increases when summer comes. 

8. That children should obey their parents is a 
truism. 

9. The belief that the earth moves was verified soon 
after the telescope was invented, 

10. Slang is vulgar, because it is an affected mode- 
of speech. 

11. He made the proposition, but they did not ac- 
cept it. 

12. Pride goeth before destruction, and a haughty 
spirit before a fall. 

13. Men may come and men may go, 
But I go on forever. 

14. The day is done and darkness falls. i 

15. I do not know what I was playing, 
Or what I was dreaming then. 

How many thoughts are expressed by each of the 
first five sentences? How many thoughts are expressed 
by each of the second five sentences? Describe the 



242 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

thoughts expressed by each of the second five sentences. 
How many thoughts expressed by each of the third five 
sentences? Describe the leading thoughts expressed by 
each of the third five sentences. 

The first five sentences are simple sentences; the 
second five, complex sentences; and the third five, com- 
pound sentences. State the essential ideas of each. 
Define each. 

Answers. — Each of the first five sentences expresses 
just one thought. Each of the second five sentences 
expresses two or more thoughts. One of the thoughts is 
of more importance than the others ; that is, it is a prin- 
cipal thought. The others are subordinate thoughts. 
Each of the third five sentences expresses two or more 
thoughts. Two or more of the thoughts are of equal 
rank, coordinate^ and not of less importance than other 
thoughts expressed in the sentence, non-subordinate. 
That is to say, each expresses two or more non-suhordin- 
ate coordinate thoughts. 

The essential ideas of the simple sentence are : 
1. It is a sentence. 2. It expresses just one thought. 
The essential ideas of a complex sentence are: 1. It 
is a sentence. 2. It expresses one principal thought and 
one or more subordinate thoughts. The essential ideas 
of a compound sentence are: 1. It is a sentence. 2. It 
expresses two or more non-subordinate coordinate 
thoughts. 

A simple sentence is a sentence which expresses just 
one thought. A complex sentence is a sentence which 
expresses a principal thought and one or more suh- 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 243 

ordinate thoughts. A compound sentence is a sentence 
which expresses two or more non-suhordinate coordinate 
thoughts. 

EXERCISE. 

Classify the following sentences on the basis of 
form as determined by the form of thought expressed: 

1. Bright days bring cheerful faces. 

2. A peculiarity of English is, that it has so many 
borrowed words. 

3. Hope comes with smiles to cheer the hour of pain. 

4. Men's opinions vary with their interests. 

5. He necessarily remains weak who never tries exer- 
tion, 

6. Webster and Clay were great orators. 

7. John and Mary are a handsome couple. 

8. Silently, one by one, in the infinite meadows of 
heaven, blossomed the lovely stars. 

9. The place where the children played is found and 
the place where they are concealed must be found. 

10. Nature never did betray the heart that loved her. 

11. Rip called him by name, but the cur snarled, 
showed his teeth, and passed on. 

12. "My very dog," sighed poor Rip, "has forgot- 
ten me." 

13. That life is long which answers life's great end. 

14. He is the freeman, whom the truth makes free. 

15. Your asparagus bed wants salt as much as you do. 

16. Despondency is a serious check upon an expand- 
ing nature. 

17. Servile fear about the condition of one's soul is a 
ban upon the projection of self into its larger capacity. 

18. I can easier teach twenty what were good to be 



244 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

done than to be one of the twenty to follow mine own 
teaching. 

19. Individuals sometimes forgive, but society never 
does. 

20. Not a truth has to art or to science been given, 
But brows have ached for it, and souls toiled and 

striven. 

GENERAL EXERCISE. 

1. Milton, the English poet, became blind. 

2. The camel is called the ship of the desert. 

3. Christianity encourages truth, purity, hope, love 
and righteousness. 

4. Intemperance will corrupt the purest heart, and 
enslave the noblest soul. 

5. Kindness of heart and purity of purpose are char- 
acteristics of a noble manhood. 

6. The dispute about who wrote Shakespeare's plays 
wastes time and energy. 

7. The man is blest who knows what he is, what he 
wants, and for what he is living. 

8. A man who is pleased with no one is more un- 
happy than he who pleases no one. 

9. I go to the god of the woods to fetch his words 
to men. 

10. Venus, when her son was lost, 
Cried him up and down the coast. 

11. A sunbeam streams through liberal space 
And nothing jostles so as to displace. 

12. Lucy was only six years old, but she was bold as 

a fairy. 

13. The skylark is rather homely, having nothing in 
feather, feature, or form to attract notice. 

14. How sleep the brave who sink to rest 
By all their country's wishes blest! 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 245 

15. The prayer, begun in faith, grew to a low, despair- 
ing cry of utter misery. 

16. Who scoffs at you, must scoff at me. 

17. The morn, in russet mantle clad, wakes o'er the 
dew of yon high eastern hill. 

18. The cat's tongue is covered with many little sharp 
cones which point towards its throat. 

19. He dreamed of his home, of his dear native bower, 
And pleasures that waited on life's merry morn. 

20. Days, months, years, and ages shall circle away, 
And still the vast waters above thee shall roll. 

Purpose of Exercises. — The exercises in identifying 
particular instances of the general ideas worked out 
have the two following purposes: 1. They help to fix 
in mind the general truths reached inductively. 2. They 
verify the general truths reached inductively. 

This work is in harmony with the mind's natural 
mode of procedure, and is based upon the following 
principle of mind : In getting truth the mind naturally 
goes from the particular to the general, then hack to 
the particular. 

Further Illustration. — The following illustrations 
will differ from the preceding in two respects : 1. The 
subjects will be selected promiscuously instead of fol- 
lowing the outline given under steps, as has been done 
in the previous illustrations. 2. Just the assignments 
are given, it being the intention to work out the answers 
in recitation. 

THE ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE. 

1. Riley is a poet. 

2. The hoy runs. 



246 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

3. TJie dog is running. 

4. Birds fly. 

5. The sun shines. 

6. Time speeds away. 

7. Flowers of early spring are blooming in the meadow. 

8. Children are naturally industrious. 

9. Good books are our friends, 

10. The bee is the type of industry. 

What does each of the above sentences express? 
How many elements has each thought? What are they 
called? What in each sentence expresses the subject 
of thought; the predicate of thought; also, the copula 
of thought? 

From the thought side, how many essential ele- 
ments has each sentence? Name them. What is the 
first thing which each essential element of the sentence 
is? Just what does each essential element of the sen- 
tence do? 

Give the essential ideas of each essential element of 
the sentence. Define each of the essential elements of 
the sentence. 

NOUN AND PRONOUN. 

1. Honest men are respected. 

2. Spring is the inspiring season of the year. 

3. Autumn brings sad thoughts to the hearts of the 
lonely. 

4. Grime increases with the advent of warm weather. 

5. The leaf of the elm is peculiar. 

6. He spoke beautiful truths about his native land. 

7. Many songs touch our hearts. 

8. Where are you going, my little man? 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 247 

9. Be ye. therefore, perfect. 
10. Oh, we are lost! 

What kind of ideas do the italicized words in the 
above sentences express? On this basis what kind of 
words are they ? How do those in the first five sentences 
differ from those in the second five sentences? 

Those in the first five sentences are nouns; those in 
the second five, pronouns. 

Give the essential ideas of the noun; also, of the 
pronoun. Define the noun; also, the pronoun. 

THE APPOSITIVE AND THE POSSESSIVE. 

1. The nation's emblem is an eagle. 

2. 'William''s effort was rewarded. 

3. James is Mary's brother. 

4. Bertha sang her song beautifull3^ 

5. The little boy gave his sick friend a bouquet. 

6. Poe, the poet, was a genius. 

7. He himself can not do it. 

8. We are loyal to Indiana, our native state. 

9. They were speaking to Dewey, the psychologist. 
10. Hope, the anchor of life, is universal in man. 

What does each of the italicized terms express in 
the above sentences? On the basis of what they express 
what kind of terms are they? What kind of elements 
are they in the sentence? What kind of terms do they 
modify ? 

Those in the first five sentences are possessive modi- 
fiers; those in the second five, appositive modifiers. 

How is the appositive modifier like the possessive? 
How is it different from the possessive? 

Give the essential ideas of the possessive modifier; 



248 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

also, the essential ideas of the ap positive modifier. De- 
fine the possessive modifier; also, the appositive modi- 
fier. 

COMPARISON OF POSSESSIVE WITH APPOSITIVE. 

Compare and contrast the possessive modifier and 
the appositive modifier with reference to : 1. Their es- 
sential ideas. 2. Their grammatical use in the sentence. 
3. The modifiers they may take. 

Illustrate each point with a good English sentence. 

GENDER. 

1. That man is a famous scholar. 

2. The lady yonder is a popular author. 

3. He is a benefactor who in any way increases human 
happiness. 

4. That teacher made his report yesterday. 

5. This teacher will make her report to-day. 

6. The child has become a fine boy. 

7. He is a statesman of note. 

8. That girl always does her work well. 

9. This doy will succeed. 

10. This chair is a present from our friends. 

11. Only a parent fully understands a child. 

12. The moon hides her pale face. 

13. The sun shows his power and glory. 

How does the mind think the sex of the objects of 
which the nouns and pronoun italicized in the first 
three sentences express the ideas? What enables the 
mind to do this ? 

How does the mind think the sex of the objects 
suggested by the italicized substantives in the second 
three sentences? What shows this? 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 249 

How does the mind think the sex of the objects 
suggested by the italicized substantives in sentences 
eight and nine? What shows this in these sentences? 

That which shows how the mind thinks the objects 
of which the substantives express the ideas, in regard to 
sex is called gender. 

Give the essential ideas of gender. Define gender. 

How does the mind think in regard to sex the 
objects suggested by the italicized substantives in sen- 
tences one, three, four, six, seven, nine, and thirteen? 
How does it think those suggested in two, five, eight and 
twelve? How does it that suggested in sentence ten? 
How those suggested in sentence eleven? 

On the basis of the number of sex distinctions 
made by the noun and pronoun, there are how many 
classes of gender? Suggest names for them. Give the 
essential ideas of each class. Define each class. 

Discussion of Gender. — Oftentimes confusion occurs in 
the minds of students in the study of gender because of a 
failure to distinguish clearly between gender and sex. It 
should be clearly seen that gender is a characteristic, the 
form and relation, of nouns and pronouns, while sex is the 
physical difference between male and female objects. Thus, 
gender belongs to substantive words, while sex belongs to 
objects of which substantive words express the ideas. 

Gender is usually said to show the sex of the object, 
but such is not at all necessarily the case. The thing which 
gender does show is how the mind thinks the object sug- 
gested by the substantive with respect to sex. That is to 
say, it shows that the mind thinks the object as having 
male sex, female sex, no sex, or merely sex without dis- 
tinguishing which. 



250 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

Thus, in the sentence, "The sun shows his power," 
''sun" is masculine gender, but the object has no sex; also, 
in the sentence, ''The ship has lost her rudder," "ship" is 
feminine gender, but the object has no sex. 

In a similar way the names of all plants are neuter 
gender, yet every one who has studied plant life very much 
knows that most plants have sex. 

Again, since the form and relation of substantive words 
show that there are four distinct ways in which the mind 
thinks objects in respect to sex, there can be no fewer than 
four genders. 

The opinion that there are fewer than four genders in 
English arises from a lack of knowledge of the real nature 
of gender. 

CASE. 

1. Horses are domestic animals. 

2. The camel has been called the ship of the desert. 

3. Flowers of spring are pleasing to us. 

4. He loho will not keep his promise is dishonest. 

5. Browning is said to be so obscure that many can not 
understand him. 

6. Mary's mother is very kind to her. 

7. That teacher does her work well. 

8. Prescott, the historian, was blind. 

9. Winter having returned, the birds have flown. 

10. Friends, I desire to call your attention to the 
beauties of nature. 

What is the grammatical use of each of the itali- 
cized substantive words in the above sentences? What 
enables the mind to know this in each instance ? 

That which enables the mind to know the gram- 
matical uses of substantives is called case by gram- 
marians. 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 251 

Give the essential ideas of case. 

Define case. 

From the standpoint of the different forms of the 
pronoun in the above sentences, there is basis for how 
many cases in the above sentences? Suggest names for 
them. 

NOMINATIVE CASE. 

1. Sponges are animals. 

2. I know that flowers are a Messing. 

3. My stars! is this fair^Mand? 

4. John, will you kindly shut the door? 

5. Our fathers, where are they? 

6. Summer having come, let us rejoice. 

7. William being a true man, all respected him. 

8. His being a policeman prevented the trouble. 

9. Dewey is called the hero of Manilla. 

10. They seem to have been successful men. 

11. Henry, the poet, was an ornament to his country. 

How is each of the italicized substantives used in 
the above sentences? A substantive used as any of the 
italicized in the above sentences is in the nominative 
relation. 

Give the essential ideas of the nominative case. 
Define the nominative case. Illustrate with original 
sentences the various instances of the nominative rela- 
tion. 

OBJECTIVE CASE. 

1. John struck James. 

2. Bring me the book. 



252 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

3. God overthrew the children of Israel in the wilder- 
ness. 

4. You can not run a mile but you can walk it. 

5. He was given a cane by his friends. 

6. We believe him to be an honest man. 

7. The president asked him to speak. 

8. For that man to be a hei'o is not possible. 

9. The precept was for him to be an honest man. 

10. Him being a scholar is not disputed. 

11. They sent the book for him to read. 

12. I saw Niagara, a grand spectacle. 

How is each of the italicized substantives used in 
the above sentences? A substantive used as any of the 
italicized in the above sentences is in the objective rela- 
tion. 

Give the essential ideas of the objective case. De- 
fine the objective case. Illustrate with sentences all the 
various instances of the objective relation. 

POSSESSIVE CASE. 

1. The poefs house was destroyed by fire. 

2. The little bird has lost her nest. 

3. William's task was finished before his father came. 

4. This is Harrison, the stateman's, home. 

5. Wolsey, the cardinal's, career ended in disgrace. 

How are the substantives italicized used in the 
above sentences? A substantive used as any of the 
italicized in the above sentences is in the possessive 
relation. 

Give the essential ideas of the possessive case. De- 
fine the possessive case. Illustrate with good sentences 
all the instances of the possessive relation. 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 253 

EXERCISE. 

Give the gender and case of each substantive in 
the following sentences : 

1. Bread has been called the staff of life. 

2. The city seemed to burst into song with the ad- 
vent of these golden days and silver nights. 

3. He grieved to give up his dog and gun; he 
dreaded to meet his wife; but it would not do to starve 
among the mountains. 

4. One genius said, "I am Health, and whom I touch 
shall never know pain nor sickness." 

5. But no living person is sunk so low as not to be 
imitated by somebody. 

6. Upon the beach lies a piece of timber, part of a 
wreck. 

7. The snow lay an inch deep on the brown tiles. 

8. He is the chieftain who looms a head above his 
people. 

9. This game has been called hide-and-seek for many 
years. 

10. We are sure it could not have been they who were 
so thoughtless. 

11. They know what is right but they do not always 
do it. 

12. "What have I done?" is asked by the knave and 
the thief. 

13. He that I spoke to is my early friend. 

14. In the awful mystery of human life, it is a con- 
solation sometimes to believe that our mistakes, perhaps 
even our sins are permitted to be instruments of our edu- 
cation for immortality. 



254 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

15. Under the spreading chestnut tree 

The village smithy stands. 
The smith, a mighty man is he, 

With large and sinewy hands; 
And the muscles of his brawny arms 

Are strong as iron bands. 

Discussion of Illustrations. — In view of the pur- 
pose of the study of grammar as treated in a preceding 
chapter, it is evident that such lessons as illustrated 
above have much value in realizing each aspect of the 
triple purpose of this subject. They are though per- 
haps of the most worth in their disciplinary value. 
This appears from the following points of merit : 

1. They are inductive in nature. 

2. They lead the student to do the work for him- 
self. 

3. They make him independent and self-helpful. 

4. They are in harmony with the laws of mental 
development ; they are natural. 

5. They foster the spirit of free inquiry and free 
investigation, the scientific spirit. 

6. They give right habits of study. 

7. They give a critical attitude of mind. 

These various things are the essence of mental 
discipline from the standpoint of skill in thinking — 
accuracy and readiness in thinking. 



CHAPTER XIX. 

DEVICES IN GRAMMAR. 

Kinds of Devices. — Devices in the teaching of any 
school subject are of great importance and are worthy 
of the most careful study. This is true because of the 
fact that reaching the desired end depends so largely 
upon the devices employed. And, since in grammar 
this is true to a larger degree than in most subjects, the 
study of devices in grammar is of the highest impor- 
tance. 

The following is a list of the most important devices 
in grammar teaching: 

1. Assignments. 

2. Class discussions. 

3. Parsing. 

4. Analysis. 

5. Diagrams. 

6. Text-books. 

These all have their legitimate uses in teaching 
grammar and they are all subject to abuses. Each will 
repay special study. 

Assignments. — There is no other device in the 
hands of the teacher that can be used with more effect 
in making his grammar teaching a success than his 
assignments. No other device furnishes better oppor- 



256 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

tunity to the teacher for the display of professional 
ability in grammar teaching. 

Every assignment in grammar if good must be pos- 
sessed of the three following characteristics : 

1. It must place before the learner a definite prob- 
lem for solution in such a way that the learner will see 
just what the problem is. 

2. It should always be in harmony with the prin- 
ciple that form in the sentence is determined by the 
thought underlying it. 

3. It should lead the learner to do his own think- 
ing. 

While it is true in every subject that the assign- 
ment should place before the class a definite problem 
for solution, it applies with unusual force in teaching 
grammar. Clear, definite, logical assignments bring 
clear, definite, logical thinking, and systematic, ener- 
getic habits of study. These economize time and energy 
and in every way contribute to success. On the other 
hand loose, indefinite, general assignments bring slov- 
enly habits of thinking; vague, feeble, uninteresting 
recitations; and illogical, bad habits of study. As a 
rule one can depend upon it that he will have recita- 
tions about as good as are his assignments. 

In the birth of language thought always precedes 
the language, and the form of the language is deter- 
mined by the thought. So in teaching the sentence 
should always when possible be approached from the 
thought side. It is the natural way, and the way best 
to teach effectively. Meaning is always the strongest 



DEVICES IN GRAMMAR. 257 

bond of association with any forms to be learned in 
grammar. 

That students may become self-helpful and inde- 
pendent in grammar they must be led to learn to think 
for themselves; to observe the sentence and think and 
reach knowledge first-hand. 

Illustration. — If a teacher should give the follow- 
ing assignment to a class, he would get probably two 
results : 

1. Define the possessive modifier. 

2. Define the appositive modifier. 

3. Compare the appositive modifier with the pos- 
sessive modifier. 

First, the students would go to some text-book and 
commit to memory the definitions found there, and make 
an unsystematic attempt at the comparison. 

Secondly, they would find little or no direct inter- 
est in the work and, after a feeble effort, give it up 
without sufficient preparation. As a matter of fact, in 
a class of any considerable size, a teacher would get 
both results. Neither of these results is good, since the 
students were not led to a sufficient degree to think for 
themselves. 

For best results the assignment should be given 
a sufficient time before the recitation to give students 
ample opportunity to work it out Avell. It is prefer- 
able to give it a day in advance of the recitation at 
least. 

The best assignment though will avail nothing un- 
less it is worked out by the students. So the more 



258 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

closely the students are held to the conscientious prepara- 
tion on the assignments the more successful will be 
the work and the more good will the students get from 
it. This point is of course as true in the teaching of 
any other subject as in the teaching of grammar. 

Class Discussions. — The importance of class dis- 
cussions as a device in teaching grammar is so evident 
that no study is needed to prove it. Class discussions 
are of the highest importance, of equal importance with 
assignments. They have the following purposes: 

1. To test the learner on his preparation and un- 
derstanding of the subject-matter of the lesson. 

2. To supplement the knowledge got in the prepa- 
ration of the lesson. 

3. To give right habits of study. 

4. To approve, stimulate and inspire the learner 
in his work. 

In the class discussions is where the points given 
by the teacher in the assignment are finally worked out. 
The teacher here tests the student as to his prepara- 
tion and understanding of the lesson. These tests must 
be just, kind, accurate, and critical. 

It often happens that a student after making an 
honest effort fails to work out completely one or more 
points in the assignment. Here the teacher has a chance 
by questions, illustrations, and directions to lead the 
student to think out the point for himself. 

The teacher's opportunities for the display of rare 
tact and skill in class discussions are unlimited. Indeed 



DEVICES IN GRAMMAR. 259 

teachers are rightly regarded successful or unsuccessful 
according to their skill in conducting class discussions. 

Text-hooks. — The text-book is relegated to its proper 
position in grammar teaching when it is considered a 
mere device. In the way in which grammar is usually 
taught in school the text-book occupies a much more im- 
portant place in the minds of both teacher and learner 
than it should have. So much emphasis is frequently 
placed upon the use of the text that students get the 
impression that grammar as a subject is contained be- 
tween the lids of the book, instead of the student's 
seeing that the text-book merely contains what some one 
has said on the subject of grammar, and that the sub- 
ject would still truly exist, if every text-book were by 
some means simultaneously destroyed. To give the 
text-book such undue importance in teaching grammar 
as usually done is entirely unwarranted. 

It is an abuse of the text-book as a device in gram- 
mar teaching to have the learner to commit to memory 
for recitation the various definitions, principles and 
rules usually found in such books. To ask the learner 
to master certain sections of the text, and demand verbal 
reproduction of such material as found therein in the 
recitation is bad in the extreme in teaching English 
grammar. 

There are, though, some legitimate uses of the text- 
book as a device in grammar teaching. Among these 
are the following: 

1. If the text-book contains a good collection of 
sentences, these may be used advantageously in the study 



260 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

of particulars in the various exercises where sentences 
are needed. 

2. After students have worked out well any aspect 
of grammar inductively, they may with much profit go 
to text-books and study them carefully on the same 
points. New suggestions will thus be studied with inter- 
est and profit, and that which the student has discovered 
for himself will be verified and fixed in mind. 

3. The text-book, if a good one, may be used by 
the teacher to lighten the work of preparing the assign- 
ments. Without some such help the work of preparing 
daily assignments would be too heavy for many teachers. 

Parsing. — In teaching, as in all other work, things 
tend to go by extremes. In accord with this truth, there 
was a time in the history of grammar teaching when the 
teaching consisted almost wholly of parsing. The parts 
of speech together with their grammatical properties 
were studied briefly from the text-book, then orders, or 
schemes, for parsing were committed to memory. The 
remaining work was parsing; the parsing of every- 
thing, prose, poetry, figures, and signs arithmetical, al- 
gebraic, and geometrical, and even pictures. It finally 
came to be seen that much of this work was almost 
wholly valueless, and then came the reaction against it. 
So in many places at present there is a tendency to do 
away with parsing altogether. This is the other ex- 
treme. Somewhere between these two extremes lies the 
happy mean. 

There is a place in teaching grammar where parsing 
may be used with profit. When students have worked 



DEVICES IN GRAMMAR. 261 

t 

through inductively any part of speech and its proper- 
ties, their minds tend perfectly naturally to return to 
the particular instances of the general truths to identify 
them and verify its conclusions. And this is just what 
the mind does in parsing. Each step in parsing is an 
act of the kind of reasoning called identification. 

Illustration. — If students have worked through the 
noun, the pronoun and their grammatical properties, 
gender, person, nunfiher and case, a lesson of the follow- 
ing kind would certainly be helpful, interesting, and 
since in accord with what the mind naturally tends to 
do, pedagogical. 

Point out the substantive words, classify them, and 
give the gender, person, number, and case of each, with 
reasons, in the following sentences : 

1. There are four Smiths in school. 

2. I am he of whom you spoke yesterday. 

3. John said to James, "I thought I heard you say 
to William, 'I have wounded myself.' " 

4. The sun shows his power and glory. 

5. Every sensation, thought or emotion one has lit- 
erally burns away some of his brain substance. 

Abuse of Parsing. — Parsing as a device in gram- 
mar is frequently abused. So much emphasis is placed 
upon it that it tends to become an end instead of a 
means, and to be able to parse well is taken to be the 
highest good in grammar work. With too many stu- 
dents and teachers the last question concerning any 
grammatical term is, ''How do you parse it?" This 
is the first way in which parsing is abused; it is ofer- 
emphasized. 



262 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

Again, in many instances, a set order of parsing 
must be gone through with every word whether it is 
worth while to do so or not. For instance, in the sen- 
tence, The child has become a hero, the word, '^hero/' 
parsed in the traditional way is, ''noun, common, class, 
masculine gender, third person, singular number, nomi- 
native case, rule, etc."; and in a similar way the other 
words of the sentence both important and unimportant are 
dealt with. Now, the word, ' ' hero ' ' offers but one point 
of grammatical importance to any student who knows 
even elementarj^ grammar. So to have the students go 
through the regulation, ''noun, common, class, mas- 
culine gender, third person, singular number, nomina- 
tive case, etc." is not only formal, but useless and silly. 
It is better by far to go directly to the problem the 
word involves and stop when it is solved. Thus the 
second way parsing is abused is that it becomes the 
veriest formalism. 

Analysis. — Analysis is a good device in grammar 
teaching when properly used. It has the same purposes 
in general that parsing has. That is to say, it is valu- 
able because of the following purposes: 1. It enables 
the mind to verify the general notions got in the in- 
ductive work. 2. It helps the mind in fixing firmly 
with itself the definitions, principles, and rules got in 
the inductive work. 3. It is a good means to enable 
the mind to grow skillful in seeing the shades of rela- 
tion in the sentence. 4. It gives skill in the kind of 
reasoning called identification, this being called into 
exercise at each step. 



DEVICES IN GRAMMAR. 263 

It is found by experience that much good analysis 
work must be done in the best grammar teaching, if 
any very high degree of skill in seeing the fine shades 
of relation in the sentence is to be attained to. 

Analysis, too, may be abused in grammar teaching 
though it is not so likely to be abused as parsing. Its 
abuse may reach in two directions : first, it may be 
made the end instead of a means in grammar teaching. 
Secondly, it, too, may degenerate into the driest sort of 
formalism. 

Use of Diagrams. — This popular device in gram- 
mar teaching, to say the most for it, should be used 
sparingly, if at all. It is at the best not more than 
a sort of kindergarten device helpful to those who have 
not reached the stage of development which enables them 
to see the relations in the sentence without having it 
pictured for them. 

There are good reasons for thinking that, instead 
of helping students to grow in skill in seeing the fine 
shades of relation in the sentence, it actually retards 
this growth. The difficulty seems to be that the learner 
gets diagrams in his head to such an extent that they 
come between him and the relations in the sentence 
and so obscure them that everything must be flashed 
before him on diagrams, either actually or in imagi- 
nation. 

Then again it is very discourteous to a sentence 
behind which is a grand thought or a beautiful picture 
to cut it up into fragments and hang its mutilated re- 
mains up on diagrams. It is as much as to say ''you 



264 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

are so bad that you can not be understood, so we will 
mutilate and hang you in order to understand you." 

For students who have reached a stage of develop- 
ment sufficient to warrant grammar work, the use of 
diagrams is entirely unnecessary; not only unnecessary 
but an injury to them. 

Again, almost every author has his own "method" 
of diagrams. Thus a large number of "methods" of 
diagrams is more or less in vogue, with which stu- 
dents and teachers can not acquaint themselves, and with 
which it is not even desirable that they should acquaint 
themselves. 



CHAPTER XX. 

COMMON ERRORS IN TEACHING GRAMMAR. 

Prevalence of. — There is no subject in the school 
curriculum the teaching of which does not offer per- 
plexing difficulties. But some are more easily taught 
than others, and thus opportunities for error are more 
numerous in teaching some subjects than in teaching 
others. Grammar belongs to that class of subjects in 
the teaching of which the opportunities for errors are 
many. Thus it happens that a great many errors are 
prevalent as usually done. 

The following are some of the most prevalent com- 
mon errors: 

1. Indefinite, erroneous purposes. 

2. Bad methods of teaching definitions. 

3. Bad use of text-book. 

4. Teaching from the form side. 

5. Bad assignments. 

6. Abuse of parsing. 

7. Abuse of diagrams. 

8. Bad methods of analyzing. 

9. Expanding and substitution. 

10. Teaching grammar to children in a stage of 
development to which it is not adapted. 
Each of these will repay brief study. 



266 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

Indefinite, Erroneous Purposes. — In too many cases 
grammar is taught by teachers who have not clearly in 
mind any further purpose than to follow the course of 
study, or in some way, not clearly apparent, to help 
the learner to use good language. Each of these pur- 
poses is much too vague and general to be of much 
genuine help in teaching. The teacher with only such 
purposes before him soon grows to believe that grammar 
is not a subject of much value. He sees no specific good 
to be accomplished and goes about his work in such a 
way that no definite good results from it. Thus kis 
work is fruitless. 

Again the teacher who holds before himself the 
idea that the main purpose of grammar is to teach 
how to speak and write correctly soon discovers the 
contradiction between his purpose and what he actually 
accomplishes. This leads to a loss of faith in grammar, 
and is attended by all the evils that accrue from a 
lack of faith in one's work. These are (1) discourage- 
ment of both teacher and pupils; (2) slighting the 
work; (3) lack of interest; (4) dislike for grammar, and 
(5) bad mental habits. 

Bad Methods of Teaching Definitions. — This is with- 
out doubt the most common error made in teaching 
grammar. The common practice, found almost every- 
where, of having students to commit to memory the 
formal definitions, principles and rules found in text- 
books violates every law of the child's intellectual life. 
It is unwarranted and inexcusable except on the ground 



COMMON ERRORS IN TEACHING GRAMMAR. 267 

of ignorance and stupid incompetency of the teacher. 
This appears from the following reasons : 

1. It is the exact opposite of the mind's natural 
way of defining. 

2. It encourages the learning of meaningless lan- 
guage forms. 

3. It can not be kept from degenerating into a 
kind of memory exercise that greatly hinders the de- 
velopment of the power to think accurately. 

4. It makes the student dependent and helpless. 

5. It kills interest and gives the learner an antip- 
athy for grammar. 

6. It arrests intellectual development. 

7. It robs the study of grammar of its chief edu- 
cational value. 

8. It gives undue prominence to the text-book, 
exalts the authoritative method, and hinders the growth 
of the scientific spirit in teaching. 

Bad Use of Text-hook. — As has been seen before, 

the text-book is a mere device in grammar teaching and 
should not be slavishly followed, as is so frequently 
done. 

It is difficult to use a text-book in grammar in 
which the definitions, rules and principles are formally 
stated, and which is placed in the hands of the students 
without detracting largely from the success of the work. 
Students will depend upon the text-book, and lose the 
benefit of working out the definitions for themselves in 
the mind's natural way. And thus they lose what is 
probably the highest value of grammar work. By the 



268 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

use of the text-book in which there are formal state- 
ments for definitions, principles and rules the students 
form the habit of remembering words instead of truths 
and principles. This difficulty can scarcely be avoided. 
If text-books were made in such a way that no formal 
statements of definitions, principles and rules were to 
be found in them, this difficulty might be avoided. 

In the light of our previous studies, the best text- 
book for daily use in the class is one which consists 
almost wholly of good collections of sentences and direc- 
tions, but lacking all formal definitions and rules. 

A teacher's manual in grammar, that is, a text for 
the teacher, but not to be placed in the hands of the 
students, might have such definitions, principles and 
rules stated for the guidance of the teacher perfectly 
properly. But such a book should not be placed in the 
hands of students. 

Teaching from Form Side. — It is an error to lose 
sight of the fact that all form in language is determined 
by the thought which lies behind the form, and that 
meaning is the strongest bond of association with the 
form. To understand meaning as determining the form 
is always most helpful, in that it is in accord with the 
very nature of the sentence as an instrument in com- 
municating thought. 

Growing out of the error of emphasizing too much 
the form in its isolation is the standing controversy 
about whether the sentence has or has not in all cases 
three essential elements. Those who look at only the 
form side will always hold that such sentences as Birds 



COMMON ERRORS IN TEACHING GRAMMAR. 269 

fly, have only two essential elements. And on a strictly 
form basis this is right. But from the viewpoint of the 
work the sentence has to do, every sentence has three 
essential elements. In the above sentence '^fly'' per- 
forms two offices. First, it expresses the idea of an 
attribute of the objects birds. Secondly, it asserts the 
relation between the idea feircZs and the idea fly. 

But it is an error to teach that the sentence has 
only two essential elements, because it does not accord 
with the nature of the sentence and is not most helpful. 

Again, emphasis upon the form side of the subject 
leads teachers to call such sentences as John and James 
we7it to school, simple sentences, while from the view- 
point of the work the sentence has to do, it is evidently 
a compound sentence. Many obvious errors arise in 
teaching grammar because of isolating the form of the 
sentence from its meaning to a greater or less degree. 

Bad Assignments. — Bad assignments in grammar 
teaching are a common and prolific source of mischief. 
They are usually at fault in the following ways: 

1. They do not give definite grammatical problems 
to be solved. 

2. They do not lead the learner to observe the lan- 
guage and think for himself. 

3. They do not lead the learner into right methods 
of studying grammar. 

Assignments that illustrate all three of these errors 
may be found in hundreds of schools in every state in 
the United States every day in the school year. 

Perhaps the worst assignments are those in which 



270 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

certain sections of the text-book are given to be learned 
and recited. 

Abuse of Parsing. — Parsing is abused in the fol- 
lowing three ways all of which are errors : 

1. It is carried to the extreme in that it is fre- 
quently made the leading exercise in grammar teaching. 

2. It is sometimes made the end instead of the 
means in grammar teaching. 

3. It is permitted to degenerate into the driest 
kind of formalism. 

Abuse of Diagrams. — The use of diagrams is abused 
in the following ways all of which are errors : 

1. It is made the chief exercise in teaching gram- 
mar, skill in diagraming being regarded as a guarantee 
of proficiency in the subject. 

2. It emphasizes the grosser relations in the sen- 
tence and blinds the learner to the fine shades of rela- 
tion in the sentence which proficiency in grammar re- 
quires. 

3. It puts diagrams in the learner's head and thus 
militates against rapidity in seeing directly the rela- 
tions in the sentence. 

Bad Methods of Analyzing. — Analyzing in gram- 
mar is frequently of such a character that it fails to 
analyze to any very large degree. Often it brings out 
nothing but the most evident relations in the sentence, 
and those of little real worth in giving skill in real 
analysis. 

Illustration. — For instance, in the sentence, The 
guilt of the slave-trade sprang out of the traffic with 



COMMON ERRORS IN TEACHING GRAMMAR. 271 

Guinea, " gxiiW is called the subject, ^'sprang'' is called 
the predicate, and the copula is not mentioned. '^^Out 
of^' is called a complex preposition. So far, there is no 
truth in the analysis, strictly speaking. The subject is 
^'The guilt of the slave trade/' and the predicate is 
*^ sprang out of a traffic with Guinea.' ' The copula is 
^'sprang." 

Again, it would be customary to say, ''out of a 
traffic with Guinea" is an adverbial modifier of 
*' sprang." So much is evident and is not worth much 
in revealing the exact force of the expression in the 
sentence. But just what is the effect on the sentence of 
"o\it of a traffic with Guinea" and the nature of the 
expression ''out of" are points of true grammatical 
worth in the sentence. 

These errors may be put as follows: 

1. Analysis is loose, general and inaccurate. 2. 
Analysis degenerates into the driest sort of formalism. 
These are the errors to be guarded against. 

Expanding and Substitution. — By this error is 
meant that when a sentence offers difficulty in analysis 
or parsing, another sentence which means the same or 
very nearly the same thing is substituted, which does 
not offer difficulties, and disposed of instead of the 
original one. 

It is evident that this is simply evading the point. 
There are no sentences in English which offer difficul- 
ties, which can not be recast into sentences which mean 
the same thing, or very nearly the same, and whose 
analysis offers little or no difficulty. So to teach the 



272 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

learner to do this establishes a precedent to which there 
is no limit, and analysis and parsing tend to become so 
much weakened that they lose largely their value. And 
again the student is led into deceiving himself by think- 
ing he has solved the problems in the original sentence. 

Illustration. — It is of some genuine grammatical 
value to the student to analyze the sentence, It was 
from me that he received the information. But recast 
the sentence into He received the information from me, 
and its analysis is worth comparatively little. Then 
again the teacher or student should not think he has 
analyzed the first sentence, for he has not. It remains 
just the same unsolved problem it was at the start. 

Further Illustration. — To take the sentence, / know 
what is right and recast it into the sentence, I know 
the thing which is right, and analyze the second and not 
the first is an error. The first sentence has not been 
analyzed. It remains and the point has simply been 
evaded. 

There is a real need for such words as "what" in 
this sentence, and the student of grammar should see 
that need. To analyze another sentence which has the 
same meaning is to turn the student away from this 
truth. 

To change the sentence. The hook is worth a dollar, 
to the sentence. The hook is worth to the value of a 
dollar, is to ignore an idiom of the English language 
and to make a sentence no good writer would use. 

All this is an error in teaching grammar, for it 
turns the learner away from a knowledge of the English 



COMMON ERRORS IN TEACHING GRAMMAR. 273 

language as it is and substitutes awkward expressions 
for study. 

There are no objections to substituting and expand- 
ing in grammar as a means of showing relation provid- 
ing the original problems are then solved and not, as 
too often done, evaded. 

Too Early Teaching of Grammar. — One of the most 
pernicious and wide-spread errors current in teaching 
grammar is this one of teaching it to children before 
they have reached a stage of development to which gram- 
mar is adapted. It is almost unaccountable that efforts 
have been made for so long to teach grammar to chil- 
dren in the first five or six years of their school lives 
without the unreasonableness of such work having been 
seen by more teachers. 

Grammar is a difficult, reflective study which re- 
quires careful abstract reasoning, critical judgment and 
conceptual thought; and, while children can learn some- 
thing of the subject before the age of fourteen or fifteen,, 
their time would be very much better spent by devotion 
to subjects adapted to their stage of development. 

There should be approved, carefully planned sys- 
tematic primary language lessons given regularly and 
emphasized in these years, but no reflective grammar. 
The grammar work can be done satisfactorily only later. 

This attempt to teach a subject above the capacity 
of children is certainly a great and common error in 
grammar teaching almost everywhere. It is the surest 
way to produce the following results: 



274 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

1. Prejudice the learner against grammar. 

2. Make his school life disagreeable for him. 

3. Dwarf and stunt his capacity to reason and 
judge in the study of language, and dull his apprecia- 
tion of it. 



CHAPTER XXI. 

THE PURPOSE OF LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

Origin of Primary Language as a Subject. — Pri- 
mary language as a school subject has not been in the 
school curriculum very long. It is one of the new sub- 
jects in school. There are teachers almost everywhere 
who can remember a time when no such subject was in 
the school course and so no place for it in the daily 
program. This being the case, the question, What 
brought primary language as a subject into the school 
curriculum? at once suggests itself. 

It is a truth, in general, to say that the same 
thing which brought grammar into the school curricu- 
lum was, also, the origin of primary language lessons. 
That is to say, it was the notion that the children did 
not use good enough English in expressing their thought 
and feeling ; also, that there was no subject in the school 
course which was helping the children to a large enough 
degree in doing this. 

But the circumstances under which language les- 
sons originated were different from those under which 
grammar originated. When grammar came into the 
course of study there was no subject in school whose 
specific claim was that of helping the learner in speak- 
ing and writing correctly. Language came after gram- 
mar had been tried and found wanting. 



276 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

It took a good many years for people to appreciate 
that grammar was not realizing in the lives of those 
who study it what was claimed to be its main purpose. 
When at length this was seen, then it was thought that 
some other subject should be added to the school course 
which would actually give the learner help in communi- 
cating his thought and feeling in good English. 

There were two aspects of the need from which 
language was born. First, it was thought that children 
did much toward forming their language habits in the 
first three or four years of their school lives, before they 
were capable of studying grammar, and that that was 
the main reason why they did not acquire the habit of 
using good language from their grammar work. Sec- 
ondly, it became known that grammar was claimed to 
do something for the child that it actually did not and 
could not do; that is, its study did not and could not 
fix with the children the habit of using good language 
in speaking and writing. 

According to the first idea, it was thought that 
primary language should be a subject suitable for chil- 
dren to study before they were developed enough to 
study grammar; that it should form a basis for gram- 
mar study, and that as soon as children could take up 
the study of grammar, they would no longer need to 
study language lessons. It was thought they could take 
up the grammar work in the fourth or fifth school year. 

According to the second idea, it was thought that 
primary language should be a subject the pursuit of 
which would actually realize in the life of the learner 



THE PURPOSE OF LANGUAGE LESSONS. 277 

what grammar had failed to do; that is, actually 
enable the learner to use good English in expressing his 
thoughts and feelings. 

Thus primary language in the school curriculum 
was born of two ideas : 

1. The need of a subject which could be studied 
before the children's mental development warranted the 
study of grammar, and which would give a basis for 
grammar. 

2. The need of a subject the pursuit of which 
would do for the children what grammar had failed to 
do; that is give the children the habit of expressing 
their thoughts and feelings in good language. 

History of Language Lessons in Our Schools. — 
There is always help in tracing through the various 
stages of growth in the teaching of any subject in the 
school course. It enables one to see what has been tried, 
its successes and failures, and to see to some extent what 
may be done and what is to be avoided. 

School officers were the first to see the need of a 
new subject in the school course whose pursuit would 
actually teach the learner to speak and write correctly. 
The need was perfectly clear. But what the nature 
of the subject should be whose study would bring about 
the desired result was not clear. But teachers, school 
officers and authors everywhere courageously went to 
work on the problem. And in the development of 
primary language teaching from that time to this, three 
stages are discernable. 

In the first stage school officers were careful to 



278 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

have a subject called primary language appear in the 
courses of study for all primary schools. And every 
teacher, in order to keep up with the times and avoid 
the criticisms of the school officers, must have a period 
for language lessons appear on his daily program. All 
felt the need, but no one knew just what the subject 
should be like. Teachers were in reality compelled to 
teach something and call it primary language. 

In this first stage language lessons were chaotic, 
but partook more of the nature of a kind of grammar 
work than anything else. Lessons were given on name 
words, quality words, action ivords, asking sentences, 
telling sentences, etc., the teacher thus seeming to think 
such work was not grammar work since the names of 
terms were changed. 

On one occasion the writer listened to a class of 
second and third year children reciting what their 
teacher called the language lesson. The recitation was 
intended to be on gender, but the little ones misunder- 
stood the term and called it '^ginger," very much to 
the embarrassment of the teacher. From the viewpoint 
of real language lessons, these lessons were almost 
worthless. But they were a beginning. 

Book-makers, always ready with the very best 
thing on any subject, soon flooded the country with 
books on primary language. And this may be regarded 
as the second stage in the development of language 
teaching. These books were followed by teachers and 
their thought as to what primary language as a sub- 
ject was like was thus molded. There were no books 



THE PURPOSE OF LANGUAGE LESSONS. 279 

to be followed in the first stage, but an abundance of 
books characterized the second stage. 

The dominating idea of these books almost invari- 
ably was, that principles and rules should be taught 
to the child in the light of which he was expected to 
speak and write good English. The controlling idea 
of the books was thus so fundamentally wrong that 
the books were not only almost worthless, but were even 
the source of much evil. This was true because, to start 
with, the child never naturally learns to use language 
by rule; then, the books were followed by teachers, and 
thus language teaching in this stage did not rise above 
the fundamental error that children learn to use lan- 
guage by rule. 

In the next stage the language book idea gave way 
to the more rational idea that no text was needed either 
in the hands of the pupils or in the hands of the 
teacher. This is the third stage in the development of 
language teaching, and is the stage of the present. 

The ideas that characterize this stage are: 

1. Pupils should be taught language in harmony 
with the way they naturally learn it; the way they 
learn it before they come to school. 

2. Language lessons may most naturally and best 
be taught by correlating these lessons with other school 
work; with nature study, geography, history, reading, 
primary literature and so on. 

The Purpose of Language Lessons Analyzed. — The 
purposes of language lessons may be analyzed into two 
general classes. 1. Distinctive purposes. 2. Common 



280 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

purposes. There are some purposes in the education 
of the learner that can be realized in his life better by 
primary language than by any other school subject. 
Such purposes are the distinctive purposes of primary 
language. They distinguish it from other subjects. 
Again there are some purposes in the education of the 
learner which can be realized in his life by primary 
language and also by other subjects; that is, by pri- 
mary language in common with other subjects. Such 
purposes are common purposes. They do not distin- 
guish primary language from other subjects. 

Distinctive Purposes of Language Lessons. — These, 
as indicated, are the purposes which distinguish pri- 
mary language from other school subjects. Of these 
there is, first, the main purpose; and secondly, a sub- 
ordinate purpose. The main purpose is the most im- 
portant one, and so the work which points toward the 
realization of this is the work upon which the em- 
phasis will be placed in teaching language lessons. The 
subordinate distinctive language purpose will call for 
work that looks toward its realization, but, since it is 
of less importance than the main aim, less emphasis will 
be put upon it. 

Main Distinctive Purpose. — The question to be an- 
swered here is. What is the main thing which language 
lessons are to do for the learner that can not be done 
by any other lessons so well? And the answer to it is, 
that it is the main purpose of language lessons to give 
the learner the habit of using good English in com- 
municating his thought and feeling. 



THE PURPOSE OF LANGUAGE LESSONS. 281 

There are two terms in this statement for the main 
purpose of language lessons whose meaning should be 
emphasized. First, the term, hahit, and secondly, the 
term, good Eriglish, need special study. It is to be 
noticed that the statement does not say to teach how 
to use good English. There is a wide difference in 
knowing how to use good language and in having the 
hahit of using good language. One may know how to 
use good language and still have to exercise the greatest 
care and watchfulness and even then do so only with 
great difficulty. On the other hand one who has ac- 
quired the hahit of good language uses good language 
with the greatest ease and facility. It is to ffx the 
hahit of good language with the learner that must be 
aimed at in all primary language teaching. 

Again it is to be noticed that the statement does 
not say the habit of using correct language. It is not 
sufficient to aim at the habit of speaking and writing 
correctly, if by correctly is meant what is grammatically 
correct. Good language is more than grammatically 
correct language. Correctness is but one element of 
good language. The other elements are clear^iess, 
energy and elegance. Thus good language is correct, 
clear, energetic and elegant language. 

Thus the following statement is arrived at: The 
main distinctive purpose of primary language is to lead 
the learner to acquire the hahit of using correct, clear, 
energetic and elegant language in communicating his 
thought and feeling. 

The Suhordinate Distinctive Purpose. — This pur- 



282 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

pose is in harmony with one aspect of the need which 
brought language as a subject of study into the school 
curriculum. This, it will be remembered was the need 
for some subject to lead up to the study of grammar in 
the school course, to lay a basis for the study of gram- 
mar. It thus is one part of the purpose of primary 
language to form a basis for the study of grammar. 
But this is only a subordinate distinctive purpose and 
not the main one as once thought. It is of small im- 
portance when compared with that of fixing the habit 
of good language with the learner. 

Common Purposes. — Every school subject has pur- 
poses of its own which its study is to realize in the 
life of the learner. But each subject also has purposes 
which its study realizes in the life of the learner, but 
which could be realized probably as well by the study 
of some other subject. These can not be rightly called 
distinctive purposes of language lessons, but they must 
not be lost sight of in teaching primary language. These 
purposes are as follows: 

1. Mental discipline, exercise in mental activity 
to the end of forming accurate, ready habits of thought. 

2. The acquisition of valuable knowledge, knowl- 
edge useful for guidance in right living. 

This study on the purpose of primary language 
lessons may be summed up as follows : 

Purpose. 

1. Distinctive. 

a. Main. To lead the learner to form the 



THE PURPOSE OF LANGUAGE LESSONS. 283 

habit of using correct, clear, elegant, and energetic 
language in communicating his thought and feeling. 

b. Subordinate. To give the learner a basis 
for the study of grammar. 
2. Common. 

a. Mental discipline, exercise in mental ac- 
tivity to the end of forming accurate, ready habits of 
thought. 

b. The acquisition of knowledge valuable 
for guidance in right living. 

Importance of Purpose. — In teaching a subject 
which has been so generally chaotic as primary lan- 
guage has been in the schools, it is of the highest im- 
portance that a perfectly definite purpose be held in 
mind by the teacher. A purpose is an ideal for the 
teacher. It stimulates him to endeavor; and that it 
may be most stimulating, it must be definite. Vague 
ideals are not stimulating. Definite ideals are both 
stimulating and inspiring. One of the greatest hin- 
drances to successful language teaching almost every- 
where is that teachers are not entirely definite as to 
what they want to accomplish. 

Purposes of Language and Grammar. — It is help- 
ful to see that the purposes of primary language and 
of grammar are different in several important respects. 

Language lessons have for their most important 
purpose to fix the habit of good language with the 
learner in expressing his thoughts and feelings. This 
has been found to be the least important function of 
grammar. 



284 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

The most important function of grammar, is to 
train the mind of the learner into right habits of 
thinking and feeling. This is only a subordinate pur- 
pose of primary language. 

Primary language has for one of its purposes to 
furnish a basis for grammar. Grammar furnishes a 
basis for rhetoric, literature, Latin, Greek, etc. 

The purpose of primary language and grammar as 
subjects of study are not identical and no worse mis- 
take can be made than to suppose them to be so. 



CHAPTER XXII. 

NATURE AND SUBJECT-MATTER OF LANGUAGE. 

The Problem. — Being satisfied that the right view 
of the purpose of language lessons has been taken, we 
are confronted with the question, What are the lessons 
to be which will fix with the children the habit of using 
good language in expressing their thought and feeling? 
And another aspect of the problem is, What lessons are 
adapted to do this and at the same time be in harmony 
with the other three purposes set up ? 

We can not depend upon what has been done in the 
past for guidance on this subject, for in no other sub- 
ject in the school curriculum has the work been more 
chaotic and unsuccessful. In the teaching of no other 
subject has more valuable time been wasted, and in no 
other subject has the work been more unsatisfactory to 
the teachers themselves. 

Neither can text-books be depended upon for guid- 
ance, for there is little or no uniformity among them 
as to what language lessons should be. Also, they have 
been tried and found wanting. 

Help on the Problem. — Help may be obtained on 
this problem from two sources. First, from ourselves. 
That is to say, by studying the problem carefully and 
depending upon the integrity of our own thought after 



286 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

studying the mind's natural way of learning language, 
together with the way one must use language throughout 
his life. This means that help may be obtained by 
studying the learner himself. 

Secondly, by studying what the best educators have 
thought and said on the subject. 

The Hindis Natural Way of Learning Language. — 
A little reflection shows that the child gets his first words 
by imitation. There is a time in his life when he is 
hungry for words. He comes in contact with objects, 
attributes, and relations in the world about him. From 
these, ideas and thoughts arise in his mind and he wants 
the terms which symbolize them. He picks these up 
from his companions, mother, father, brother, sister, 
playmates, and others, thereafter using them by imita- 
tion. Seeing the use of these he wants more. He has 
ideas and thoughts but lacks the language forms to com- 
municate them. He wants to communicate them because 
he has the instinct to communication. His consciousness 
of this need makes him receptive for words and sen- 
tences. 

But this is not the only way he learns language. 
It is usually said that the child learns language before 
he goes to school by imitation from his mother's tongue. 
This is of course true, but it is not the whole truth. The 
whole truth is, he learns words for a time by imitation, 
but he soon begins to use them in combination by in- 
ference rather than by imitation. 

The child is inventive and manifests it in the ex- 
pressions he uses. He invents expressions. The English 



NATURE AND SUBJECT MATTER OF LANGUAGE. 287 

language is often inconsistent, and since it is so, the 
child makes errors because his inferences are too con- 
sistent for the language. A little four-year-old said, 
''Look out, the cow will hook you, for I see her hooks." 
Again, a little one three years old said, "I want to go 
out in the shade and hammock." She had heard the 
word swing used both as a noun and as a verb. She had 
heard the word hammock used as a noun, and had in- 
ferred that it could be used as a verb. A little boy 
was taught that a man or boy who does the right thing 
at the right time is a hero. When asked what a woman 
or girl should be called who does the right thing at the 
right time, he said, "I think she is a shero.'' 

One does not have to study children long in their 
use of language to get sufficient evidence of the fact that 
they are inventive; that is, that they make new com- 
binations, by inference, of the words learned first by 
imitation. 

This study shows that there are the three follow- 
ing steps in the child's natural process of learning 
language : 

1. He gets thought and feeling which is aroused 
by the world of objects, attributes, and relations about 
him. 

2. He communicates this thought and feeling in 
language forms. 

3. He depends upon his associates for his language 
forms. 

And this study further suggests that, if the teacher 



288 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

of language follows the child's natural way of learning 
it he will do the following three things : 

1. Develop thought and feeling in the life of the 
learner. 

2. Stimulate the learner to express this thought 
and feeling. 

3. Supply the correct language forms when they 
are in any way lacking. 

The Language Period. — Students of children are 
now bringing the fact that there is a language period 
in the life of the child before teachers and parents in 
such a way that there is a growing appreciation of this 
truth. This language period is on the average from the 
time the child begins to talk to the period of adolescence, 
the age of thirteen or fourteen. 

Now, if this period is permitted to pass by without 
the child's having acquired fair language habits, the 
probability is that he either never will do so, or will 
do so with much difficulty and at great cost. 

The following from *' Taylor's Study of the Child" 
is suggestive on this point: ''Children seldom lack for 
words to express their ideas. This is particularly true 
of children from three to twelve years of age. The 
confusion and hesitancy of the youth are not generally 
found earlier in life. Children either tell what they 
know or frankly say they do not know. They may 
often be wrong in what they say, but if they think they 
know a thing, they usually have a word for it. If these 
things be true, the cultivation of the child's language in 
these earlier years — years in which we have been exalt- 



NATURE AND SUBJECT MATTER OF LANGUAGE. 289 

ing sense-perception — needs to be given greater promi- 
nence than now accorded it." 

' ' Grammar is too often taught as a means of helping 
a child correct his language, whereas proper guidance in 
these years when he was learning language as naturally 
as he was learning to walk, would have made all such 
work unnecessary." 

This is the period of predominant brain growth as 
a whole, and also of the development of the nervous 
centers situated in the third convolution of the left 
frontal lobe of the brain, which control speech. During 
this period these nervous centers are taking on their 
organized modes of action. And in this period they, 
due to their unstable condition because of growth and 
development, are easily organized into any desired mode 
of activity. Once this period passed, and the growth 
completed, the centers become more stable, and the 
opportunity for the most effective language teaching is 
forever gone. 

**A well-trained nervous system is the greatest 
friend the mind can have. An ill-trained nervous sys- 
tem is a relentless enemy to the higher mental powers. 
It follows its victims and thwarts their aims until the 
pitying grave stops it. The writer can never forget the 
despair of a man who had become wealthy and who 
wished to go into educated society. Early associations 
had trained his motor mechanism to say: 'He done 
wrong. I laid down. They set down and rested. I 
could have went.' He procured teachers to instruct 
him in the right forms, and he finally learned them so 



290 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

that he could write them out correctly after a little 
study. But, alas! he could not talk with his pen or 
fingers. The brain cells governing the vocal muscles 
worked automatically, as they had been early habituated. 
This automatic working was followed, but not preceded 
by consciousness. Not until after the words had escaped 
him would he know that they were wrong. The brain 
cells in his third left frontal convolution, with the vocal 
habituation due them, were an enemy watchful and re- 
lentless. ' ' 

Conditions Under Which Language Is Naturally 
Used. — Before children start to school they use lan- 
guage when they have thoughts and feelings to express, 
and which they desire to express. Naturally they do not 
Tise it at any other time. Also, when they are using 
language their mind's energy is focused on the thing 
about which they are thinking, and not upon the lan- 
guage. This is an observation worthy of reflective at- 
tention, because of the valuable guidance it gives in 
teaching primary language. 

Illustration. — On the table where the writer is at 
work sits a jardiniere containing a hyacinth just burst- 
ing into bloom, and a child four years old is admiring 
it. She is chattering about "how pretty, how sweet, and 
how nice" it is. Her mind is wholly absorbed with the 
object about which she is thinking and talking. 

And this is perfectly natural. This is the way 
language is always naturally used. Thus the child 
naturally learns language with his attention focused on 
the object about which he is thinking and talking. 



NATURE AND SUBJECT MATTER OF LANGUAGE. 291 

A little reflection here shows that this is the way 
language is to be used throughout life. The one who 
uses the language will have his mind's energy largely 
employed in the thinking he is doing, when he uses 
language under natural conditions. 

School Woi'k and Living. — It is a sound educa- 
tional principle that tJie school work of the learner 
must correlate with his life work after leaving school. 
This means that any work learned in school must be 
carried on in the same way in school as it will be car- 
ried on in life by the learner. For instance, the learner 
should practice writing in school as he will be called 
upon to write after leaving school. Or he should learn 
to read or spell as he will be required to read or spell 
after leaving school. 

As an educational principle this is true and funda- 
mental, for only in this way can school work best pre- 
pare for the work of life, the aim of all work in school. 

This is substantially the same principle as one learns 
to do by doing, and learns to do a thing by doing it, 
and not by doing something else. For instance, the 
way to learn to ride a bicycle, to learn to skate, or to 
learn to play a piano is by doing these very things, and 
by doing them in the same manner as one desires to do 
them later. 

Application to Language Lessons. — Having learned 
that the child uses language before he goes to school 
with his attention engrossed with the object about which 
he is thinking, and that he will use language in the 
same way throughout his life, it plainly appears that 



292 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

his language lessons, if they are to prepare him for his 
life work, must be carried on in the same way. That 
is to say, the language lesson should be of such a char- 
acter that the learner will be acquiring the habit of 
using good language with his mind's energy focused on 
the thing about which he is thinking, and not with his 
attention on the language. 

This fundamental principle of all language teaching 
has generally been violated in practice almost every- 
where. And because of a failure to grasp this princi- 
ple and appreciate its importance in language lessons, 
much poor and fruitless work has been done. Children, 
in so far as they have studied language and mastered it 
at all, have usually done so by dealing with the lan- 
guage directly with their attention on the language — ■ 
a way they never naturally use it in life. 

This is the very way most of us have mastered the 
use of language, in so far as we have done so at all. 
As a result of this, those of us who know what good 
language is, can use pretty good English so long as our 
minds are centered on the language, but as soon as we 
have to use language under the tension of thought and 
feeling which take the mind's energy away from the 
language, we make errors in our English. 

This is just what could be reasonably expected, 
because we are called upon to use language under differ- 
ent conditions from those under which we studied it. 

This is the chief reason why many of us who are 
not careless and who would really like habitually to use 
pure and elegant English make errors in speaking and 



NATURE AND SUBJECT MATTER OF LANGUAGE. 293 

writing, even when we know better. And this is also 
the main reason why we mispronounce words in speak- 
ing and reading, and misspell words in writing whose 
pronunciation and correct spelling we well know. 

Illustration. — A friend who teaches grammar and 
who knows well what good English is, but who has mas- 
tered his English in this unnatural way — by studying it 
with his attention on the language — when speaking un- 
der the tension of thought and feeling will make as many 
as five or more errors per minute. If he were called 
upon to use the same sentences in such a way that he 
could keep his attention upon the language, he would 
not make a single error. This is a common observation 
as well as a common experience. 

Pririciples of Language Lessons. — From the study 
so far, some principles valuable for guidance in teach- 
ing language may be reached. The following are evi- 
dent: 

1. The child naturally at first learns language by 
imitation, and afterwards uses it by imitation and in- 
ference. 

2. The learner desires to use language only when 
he has thought and feeling to express. 

3. In language, as in the pursuit of any art, the 
learner learns to do by doing. 

4. The learner wiU best acquire the habit of using 
good language by dealing with the language with his 
mind engrossed with the object of thought, and not with 
his attention on the language. 

5. Language as a subject is to be taught with em- 



294 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

phasis in the language period, since it is peculiarly 
adapted to this stage of the child's development. 

The Subject Matter of Language. — Primary lan- 
guage as a subject deals with discourse as its language 
unit. It deals with words and sentences, it is true, but 
not in their isolation. Language aims at habits of the 
correct connection of sentences as well as correctness, 
elegance, clearness, and energy in the sentence. In so 
far as primary language deals with words and sen- 
tences, it deals with them only as parts of the larger 
whole, discourse. 

Reading, literature, and rhetoric as a science, also 
deal with discourse as their language unit, but discourse 
as a finished product. Primary language and composi- 
tion as school subjects deal with discourse but not as 
a finished product. They deal with discourse in the 
process of construction; that is, as an unfinished prod- 
uct. 

From the above study the following statement of 
the subject matter of primary language is reached: 

The subject matter of primary language is dis- 
course in the process of construction, as a medium for 
communicating thought and feeling, as to its correct- 
ness, clearness, energy and elegance. 

Oral and Writte7i Discourse. — Language as a sub- 
ject deals with both oral and written discourse. The 
learner will be called upon during his life to communi- 
cate his thought and feeling in both oral and written 
form; and since the language lesson is to prepare him 
for living, he must become skillful in both kinds of com- 



NATURE AND SUBJECT MATTER OP LANGUAGE. 295 

munication. In the lower grades the oral communica- 
tion should predominate largely, and in the more ad- 
vanced grades of the language work they should balance 
each other pretty well. It is a mistake to make the ad- 
vanced stages of the language work almost wholly writ- 
ten as usually done. It is, of course, a worse mistake 
to make the lower grades of primary language work pre- 
dominantly written discourse. 

Description, Narration, Exposition and Argument. 
— Keeping in mind that the learner is to be prepared 
to communicate in good English his thought and feeling 
throughout his life, and that he will do this by means 
of discourse, we see the necessity of studying further 
into the nature of discourse. A little further study 
shows that there are classes of discourse depending upon 
the nature of the thought to be expressed, and that the 
learner in expressing his thought and feeling will use 
these various classes of discourse. There are on the 
basis of the kind of thought to be expressed, the fol- 
lowing kinds of discourse: description, narration, expo- 
sition and argument. 

Description. — The mind will be called upon to deal 
with particular objects, and to express its ideas and 
thoughts concerning these objects at various times in 
life. The mind can view the object as it is at any 
fixed time by perceiving its co-existent attributes and 
parts. Discourse which is the communicating medium 
for setting forth the co-existent attributes and parts of 
a particular object is description. Thus description 
deals with a particular object as to its statical attri- 



296 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

butes and parts. A particular object is viewed as it is 
at any time and the mind embodies its knowledge of 
this object in discourse, and this discourse is descrip- 
tion. A description is in a sense a photograph of a 
particular object; for, like a photograph, it shows the 
object as the mind catches it at a fixed time. 
The essential ideas of description are: 

1. It is a kind of discourse. 

2. It deals with a particular object. 

3. It sets forth the co-existent attributes and parts 
of its object. 

Illustration. — Before the writer on the writing table 
sits a hyacinth in full bloom giving off its fragrance 
from a spike of most beautiful violet colored flowers. 
If the attributes of the hyacinth as a whole were given, 
the parts named, and their attributes stated just as the 
hyacinth appears at the present time, the production 
would be a description. The production would be dis- 
course, the hyacinth a particular object, and it would 
be dealt with as to its co-existent attributes and parts. 

Narration. — Again, the mind deals with particular 
objects by perceiving their attributes and parts as 
changing. Discourse which is the communicating me- 
dium for setting forth the changing attributes and parts 
of a particular object is narration. Description deals 
with a particular object as to its statical attributes and 
parts, but narration deals with a particular object as to 
its dynamic attributes and parts. Change is the thing 
emphasized in narration. 

The essential ideas of narration are: 



NATURE AND SUBJECT MATTER OF LANGUAGE. 297 

1. It is discourse. 

2. It deals with a particular object. 

3. It sets forth changing attributes and parts. 

Illustration. — If the hyacinth mentioned above had 
iDcen studied from day to day and the change carefully 
recorded as it grew, with a discussion of its appearance 
from time to time, the record of this when put into 
coherent form would have been narration. The chang- 
ing attributes and parts of the particular object would 
have been thus set forth. 

The record of a journey or of an excursion, of inci- 
dents, and biographies are narrations. The discourse 
which treats of life histories of animals and plants is 
narration. These are all narrations because they treat 
of particular objects as to change. 

Exposition. — The mind may deal with a general 
idea by thinking the elements, or truths, of which it is 
made. Discourse which deals with a general idea, or a 
general notion, is exposition. The mind thinks the com- 
mon truths of each object of a class, defines the class, 
and illustrates it; then, divides it into subclasses again 
and again, thinks the common truths, defines and illus- 
trates, and embodies its thoughts in discourse, and this 
discourse is exposition. If the adjective were chosen as 
a subject, defined, divided into classes and subclasses 
again and again, these discussed as to definition, inflec- 
tion and illustration the discourse produced would be 
exposition. 

Any general idea, as the adverb, tree, horse, light, 



298 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

electricity, case, mode, character, or honesty might be 
studied out by the mind and its thought embodied in 
discourse, and such discourse would be exposition. 
The essential ideas of exposition are: 

1. It is discourse. 

2. It deals with general ideas. 

3. It sets forth the elements of these by defini- 
tion, classification and illustration. 

Argument. — The mind deals with general truth by 
applying it to particular facts and cases, and the thought 
thus produced is embodied in the kind of discourse 
called argument, or argumentation. Thus argument is 
the kind of discourse which applies the general idea to 
particular cases. The argument as to whether a cer- 
tain thing is right or wrong consists in applying the 
general ideas of right and wrong to the particular 
thing. 

Individuals to argue must agree on general ideas, 
or fundamental truths, or there is no argument, merely 
dispute. 

The essential ideas of argument are : 

1. It is discourse. 

2. It deals with general ideas or truths. 

3. It applies these truths to particular cases. 
Relation to Language Lessons. — It has not been 

the intention here to study at any great length these 
four kinds of discourse. One thing to be seen here is 
that, in using language throughout life, the learner will 
have occasion to use these four kinds of discourse, and 
should be prepared to use them accurately and read- 



NATURE AND SUBJECT MATTER OF LANGUAGE. 299 

ily. And for this reason, that he may teach the learner 
to do this, the teacher should understand the process 
of construction of these four kinds of discourse. And 
the teacher who does understand them will do better 
primary language teaching than the one who does not, 
other things being equal. 

Narration and description are easy kinds of dis- 
course to make, but exposition and argumentation are 
much more difficult of construction. No child in the 
language period is likely to do creditable work in the 
construction of either exposition or argumentation. The 
language of the infant and child is almost wholly nar- 
ration and description. Exposition and argumentation 
are language of higher stages of mental development 
than those of infancy and childhood. 

In primary language work the exercises should 
almost entirely be in narration and description. These 
two kinds of discourse construction are well adapted to 
the mental development of the learner in the language 
period. But exposition and argument are kinds of 
discourse construction illy adapted to this period. The 
laws of the mind and the laws of discourse show that 
the main lines of work in primary language lessons are 
to be narration and description. The first lessons should 
be narration, because such lessons are easier and much 
more interesting. 

Much bad work has been done in teaching primary 
language because of a failure on the part of teachers 
to appreciate the truth that the learner can not make 
expositions and arguments of merit, in the language 



300 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

period. Children have been asked to produce exposi- 
tions and arguments when the work was entirely above 
their ability. To ask a child to write on "Industry,'^ 
''Courage,'^ "Patience," ''Character," etc., is to ask 
him to produce an exposition. Such work kills inter- 
est, paralyzes endeavor, and gives the child a lasting 
hatred for his language lessons. 

Relation of Primary Language to Other Subjects. — 
There are some mischievous views to some extent held 
concerning the relation of primary language to other 
subjects in the school curriculum. 

The following may be studied profitably: 

1. It is held that there is no such subject as pri- 
mary language distinct from other subjects. 

2. It is held that what is caUed primary language 
is a phase of simple grammar work. 

3. It is held that primary language lessons should 
not constitute a regular line of work, but that these 
lessons should be done incidentally in connection with 
other work. 

75 Primary Language a Subject? — To study this 
question systematically one needs to see how one sub- 
ject may be like other subjects and different from them. 
The likenesses and differences appear in three things: 

1. They may deal with the same or different things. 

2. They may deal with these things in the same or in 
different ways. 3. They may have the same or different 
purposes. 

Now, there are only two subjects in the school course 
with which primary language is likely to be confused. 



NATURE AND SUBJECT MATTER OF LANGUAGE. 301 

These two subjects are grammar and composition. All 
subjects except these are so evidently different from 
primary language that there is no danger of confusion. 
To grammar lessons and composition lessons primary 
language lessons are indeed closely related, but they 
are not identical in either case. 

Primary language differs from grammar as fol- 
lows: 

1. Primary language deals with discourse as its 
language unit while grammar deals with the sentence 
as its language unit. 

2. Language deals with discourse as a correct, 
clear, elegant and energetic medium for communicat- 
ing thought; while grammar deals with the sentence in 
its science aspect as to nature, definition, classification 
and relation; and in its art aspect as to correctness. 
Also, in the grammar lesson the mind is focused on the 
language, while in the language lesson the mind is 
focused in so far as possible on the thought to be ex- 
pressed. 

3. The main purpose of primary language is the 
hahit of speaking and writing good English ; the main 
purpose of grammar is mental training, or discipline. 
The subordinate purposes of primary language are, (1) 
to form a basis for grammar; (2) to give valuable 
knowledge; and (3) to give mental training. The sub- 
ordinate purposes of grammar are (1) to form a basis 
for other language work; (2) to give knowledge valu- 
able for guidance in speaking and writing. 

It is thus seen that primary language is not identi- 



302 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

cal with grammar in any of the three points in which 
subjects may be alike and different. 

Composition and primary language are much alike, 
but not entirely so. They both deal with discourse in 
the process of making; they both aim at the habit of 
good English, but composition deals with written dis- 
course, while primary language deals with both oral 
and written discourse, but emphasizes more the oral 
discourse. Primary language as a subject is a much 
more elementary and fundamental subject than com- 
position and paves the way, and forms the basis, for 
composition. 

Every lesson is in a sense a language lesson, if the 
best work is being done. But there is a difference be- 
tween teaching, for instance, a nature study lesson for 
the purposes of nature study, and teaching a language 
lesson for the purpose of language, even though the 
facts dealt with in the two lessons are just the same. 

Primary language should be regarded a separate 
subject in the school curriculum, and every teacher 
should differentiate it in his thought from the other 
subjects of the school course. A failure to do this 
leads to a lack of definiteness, and confusion of pri- 
mary language with other subjects of the school course ; 
also, to the attempt to teach primary language inci- 
dentally. And observation soon convinces one that do- 
ing work incidentally means slighting and neglecting 
it. Incidental work usually is not worth much. 

Primary language must hold a clear, definite and 
dignified position in the teacher's thought and feeling 



NATURE AND SUBJECT MATTER OF LANGUAGE. 303 

if the work of teaching it is to be conscientiously and 
well done. 

Thoughts of a Thinker. — ''It should be a pervad- 
ing element in the whole school and home training of 
the young, to make them use their own tongue with 
accuracy and force." * * * "It is constant use and 
practice under never-failing watch and correction, that 
makes good writers and speakers; the application of 
direct authority is the most efficient corrective. Gram- 
mar has its part to contribute, but rather in the higher 
than in the lower stages of the work. One must be a 
somewhat reflective user of language to amend even 
here and there a point by grammatical reasons; and no 
one ever changed from a bad speaker to a good one by 
applying the rules of grammar to what he said." 

This quotation from Professor Whitney, the great- 
est American grammarian, shows the nature of good 
primary language work in general. The following 
points from it are worthy of great emphasis: 

1. Language work is the work of the whole school 
and home training of the child. 

2. It is constant use and practice under never- 
failing watch and criticism which will do the work. 

3. The application of direct authority is most effi- 
cient. 

4. The application of the rules of grammar does 
not correct efficiently bad language habits. 

Conclusions. — From the foregoing study the fol- 
lowing conclusions concerning the nature of primary 
language lessons are deduced: 



304 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

1. The child studies any object to get thought and 
feeling. 

2. He communicates this thought and feeling in 
both oral and written discourse, narration and descrip- 
tion in the main, with his mind focused on that of 
which he is thinking. 

3. His language lessons must be almost entirely 
narration and description, in the language period. 

4. His language must constantly be under never- 
failing watch and friendly correction. 



CHAPTER XXIII. ] \ 

STEPS IN LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

General Steps. — Every language lesson is like every 
other one in that the following three steps must be 
taken : 

1. The development of thought and feeling. 

2. Stimulating to the communication of this 
thought and feeling. 

3. Supplying the correct form when the communi- 
cating medium is lacking in any way. 

These are the steps in every language lesson from 
the teachers point of view. Each is very important in 
language teaching and will repay a definite study. 

The Development of TJiought and Feeling. — This is 
absolutely the first step in all language teaching, and 
it is of the highest importance. Without thought and 
feeling to be communicated the learner has no need for 
a communicating medium — the language. Language — 
words, sentences and discourse — came into existence to 
communicate thought and feeling. So, according to the 
way language originated and according to the way the 
learner naturally uses language, the first step in lan- 
guage teaching is to lead the learner to get in mind some 
thought and feeling worth communicating and which 
he will want to communicate. 



306 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

Importance of this Step. — As evident as it is that 
this is the first thing to do in teaching primary lan- 
guage, and as evident as its importance is, this step 
has not only not been well done, but the importance 
of it has not been generally appreciated by teachers of 
primary language. In fact a failure to develop thought 
and feeling sufficiently is the very rock upon which most 
teachers are shipwrecked in their careers as teachers of 
primary language. And the trouble comes about in the 
two following ways: 

First, the teacher gets his eye so firmly fixed upon 
the idea that he wants to get the learner to use language 
that he is blinded to the fact that the learner not only 
does not desire to use language when he has no thought 
and feeling to communicate, but absolutely can not use 
coherent language. The teacher gives subject after sub- 
ject to the learner and insists that he must say some- 
thing either orally or in writing on these subjects. The 
learner knows nothing to say and has no feeling to com- 
municate, except, perhaps, one of helplessness, and so 
produces no discourse at all or incoherent, framentary 
language of no worth. The teacher still urges the 
learner to say more, and as a result he comes to dislike 
the work, slights it and then neglects it for more pleas- 
ant work ; the teacher puts on more pressure ; the learner 
despises the work, and the whole thing is much worse 
than a failure. Many teachers have seen just this thing 
happen to classes in primary language and composition 
work. 

Secondly, the teacher seems to think the quantity 



STEPS IN LANGUAGE LESSONS. 307 

of discourse produced is the criterion of success, and so 
demands so much written or oral discourse or both that 
the learner can not have time for the proper develop- 
ment of thought and feeling. The results are the same 
as in the first case: dislike for the work, neglect of it 
and bad student habits. 

Mutual Cause and Effect. — Bad language and bad 
thinking are mutual cause and effect. Bad thinking is 
the cause of bad language and bad language is the cause 
of bad thinking. Very often the cause of bad language 
is to be found in the incoherent thinking the discourse 
expresses. If the thinking be fragmentary, inaccurate, 
and unsystematic, the language which is the formal ex- 
pression of this thought, will partake naturally of these 
characteristics, and thus poor thinking produces poor 
language. 

On the other hand, if one has a poor command of 
language, so much of his mind's energy will be re- 
quired in getting the proper language forms that the 
thinking will suffer from not having the mind's full 
power upon it. 

It can not be too thoroughly appreciated and too 
strongly felt by teachers of primary language that the 
first thing to do in all language teaching is to direct the 
learner in thinking in order that he may have thought 
and feeling in mind to express and which he desires to 
express. 

Objects of Study. — In the selection of objects of 
study as a basis for the language lesson two general 
truths should guide : 



308 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

1. The object studied must be well adapted to the 
mind of the learner; that is, it must not be too hard 
nor too easy, and it must be sufficiently attractive to 
arouse direct interest. 

2. The object of study must be of such a character 
that it will be worth studying; that is, the study of it 
must give good mental training and knowledge valuable 
in living. 

The first one of these truths is so evident that it 
hardly needs comment. If the language lesson is to 
possess life, vivacity and interest, the object of study 
must be one which the learner will like to study, and he 
will not like to study one which is either too easy or 
too hard for him. Neither can any language lesson be 
much of a success which is not vigorous and interesting. 

The second one of these truths, though, needs fur- 
ther study in order that an error held to some extent 
may be corrected, and in order that the truth may be 
made emphatic. It has been asserted that the first ob- 
ject in language teaching is to get the learner to talk, 
and that it does not make very much difference what he 
talks about, just so he talks. And in pursuance of this 
idea pictures, foolish stories, etc., have been given to 
children to talk about and write about in their language 
lessons. To have children use language in this way is 
an error in primary language teaching, because there is 
an abundance of things which may be studied and 
which are worth studying and which may be used as a 
basis for the very best language lessons. The world is 
so full of interesting and valuable things to learn that 



STEPS IN LANGUAGE LESSONS. 309 

there is no excuse for studying anything for a mere 
mental gymnastic. Children have no need to be taught 
to talk for the mere sake of talking. The world is 
already too full of people who talk without saying any- 
thing. 

In pursuance of the idea of studying some object 
worth studying as a basis for language work, language 
lessons may be made to correlate with the following : 

1. Nature study lessons. 

2. Concrete geography lessons. 

3. Reading lessons, 

4. Primary history lessons. 

5. Primary literature lessons. 

6. Lessons on form. 

7. Biography. 

8. Stories. 

It is to be noted that in making any of these lines 
of work a basis for developing thought and feeling, the 
material of study may be made valuable in itself. This 
is a point in language teaching which should never be 
lost sight of. 

Stimulating to the Communication of Thought and 
Feeling. — If the thought and feeling have been well 
developed, students will take this step by merely being 
asked by the teacher to state orally or in writing what 
they know on the topic. Merely asking the learner to 
do this is all the stimulating which will be required. 

But the question, Why have so many students dis- 
liked their language work and their composition work? 
is a pertinent one in this connection. Teachers almost 



310 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

everywhere are aware that in many places students in 
large numbers dislike their language and composition 
work. It can not be because students dislike to talk and 
write, for the human being has a natural impulse which 
urges him to communicate his thought and feeling. That 
is to say, he has the instinct of expression. Thus com- 
munication is natural and pleasurable, when the mind 
has thought and feeling to communicate. But it is un- 
natural and disagreeable to try to use language when 
there is nothing in the mind surging for expression. 

Thus that which has made the language and compo- 
sition lessons disagreeable to the learner has been the 
following : 

1. A failure on the part of teachers to lead the 
learners sufficiently to develop thought and feeling. 

2. The demand for too much written or oral dis- 
course. 

3. A failure on the part of the teachers to make 
the study of something interesting and valuable the 
basis of the language or composition lesson. 

It is safe to assert that, if students are led by the 
teacher to study something interesting until it is well 
known, it will not be disagreeable to them to express 
their thoughts either orally or in writing. For such 
work to be disagreeable would be unnatural. It is na- 
tural, and, therefore, agreeable to communicate our 
thoughts. 

Supplying the Correct Form When the Communi- 
cating Medium Is Lacking in Any Way. — This third 
step in all language teaching is one of much importance, 



STEPS IN LANGUAGE LESSONS. 311 

and is worthy of careful consideration. It indicates 
something of the importance of this step to show that it 
is the distinctive language-learning step in all teaching 
and in all life. The little child who is first learning to 
talk depends upon father, mother, brother, sister or com- 
panion for the language forms to express his ideas. 
These forms they give him, and this act of giving under 
these conditions constitutes ideal language teaching. 

In a sense, every lesson in any subject whatever in 
school must be a language lesson. That is to say, in any 
lesson in school work bad language must not be passed 
by without attempt at correction. The use of good lan- 
guage is to be made a habit as nearly as can be. But 
if the learner be held to the use of good language only 
during the period of daily recitation in language, some 
fifteen or twenty minutes in length, and be permitted 
to use indifferent or bad language during the remain- 
der of the time at school and at home, as is the custom 
in most cases, he will never acquire the hahit of using 
good language. The tendency or ability gained during 
the recitation in language, under those circumstances, 
will be constantly antagonized and overcome by the 
counter tendency established during the time he is not 
in the language recitation. 

The bad language habits which children are per- 
mitted to form in the home and from their companions 
out of the home make the problem of successful lan- 
guage teaching in our American schools a most difficult 
one. 

If the child could always hear and see pure Ian- 



312 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

guage both in school and out of school the problem of 
successful language teaching would be greatly simpli- 
fied. Some have even thought that under those circum- 
stances the learner would always use pure language, and 
that there would be no need for language lessons. Such 
though would probably not be the case. The child's 
always hearing or seeing pure language would not be a 
guarantee of his always using pure language. Children 
make logical mistakes in language, which become habit 
with them, and which would have to be corrected. They 
also invent language forms not logical and incorrect 
which become habit and must be corrected. For in- 
stance, a little four-year-old having heard his parents 
say, ''We aren't going" said, when asked if he was 
going, ''I am'nt going." Another formed the habit of 
saying, ' ' Big large ' ' for large. 

Again, while the language lessons must be pre- 
dominantly oral for at least the first eight years of the 
learner's school life, he must also be taught to communi- 
cate his thought and feeling by means of a written 
medium; that is, in written discourse. In this work 
many, indeed most, of the errors are errors of omission 
rather than of commission. So however pure the lan- 
guage is which the child is accustomed to see and hear, 
these logical errors, and peculiar habits of oral lan- 
guage, and the errors both of omission and commission 
in written language will have to be corrected by lan- 
guage lessons. 

The view that every lesson should be made a lan- 
guage lesson, in the sense that errors in language should 



STEPS IN LANGUAGE LESSONS. 313 

never pass by without attempt at correction, has been 
criticized on the ground that every subject is thus sub- 
ordinated to language. The point is not well taken, be- 
cause it is a necessary part of the teaching in every 
subject to teach the learner to express his knowledge of 
that subject, and to do so in good language. The mas- 
tery of anj" subject consists of three things: 1. The 
understanding of the subject. 2. Fixing it in mind. 
3. The ability to express it in good language. 

Thus it is an integral part of the mastery of the 
subject to be able to express one's thoughts of it in 
good language. And the very demand for good lan- 
guage contributes largely to accurate and ready think- 
ing. Thus in holding the learner to the use of good lan- 
guage in every school subject the teacher is not at all 
subordinating every subject to language. 

Corrections. — Since so much of the teacher's work 
in teaching language lessons consists in making cor- 
rections and in supplying language forms, a careful 
study of the when, and how of corrections is of great 
importance. 

The language lessons throughout the language 
period in the learner's life are rightly to be predomi- 
nantly oral, so the corrections will most be those of the 
child's oral language. 

In regard to these errors some have thought and 
have vigorously asserted that errors should not be cor- 
rected as soon as made, but that attention should be 
called to them at the end of the recitation. But three 
reasons are urged for this procedure: 1. It does not 



314 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

embarrass the learner. 2. It does not break up his con- 
tinuity of thought. 3. It does not develop an abnormal 
self-consciousness. 

The opposite of this, making the corrections as soon 
as possible following error, it is claimed, does (1) em- 
barrass; (2) break up the continuity of thought, and 
(3) develop an abnormal self -consciousness. 

Experience teaches, however, that if the correction 
is made in the right spirit, and if the learner is trained 
to understand it so, the correction may be made im- 
mediately without doing any of these three things to a 
harmful degree. If any of these alleged evils occur, 
the teacher will do well to look to the spirit which exists 
between him and his pupils, for the source of the evil 
will be found to be there. The manner, and the spirit 
of the correction and the feeling existing between 
teacher and learner control this problem. 

Of course, if Mary should say, "He come yester- 
day," and the teacher should scream out, "Stop, Mary I 
Can you not use better language?" the continuity of 
thought would be broken up, and Mary would be em- 
barrassed and made too self-conscious. But if, when 
Mary makes the error, the teacher gently says "came" 
or "He came yesterday" and Mary repeats, using the 
correct form and goes on with the recitation, the con- 
tinuity of thought will not be broken, Mary will not be 
embarrassed and made self-conscious to any harmful 
degree. 

Since the objections to making the correction as> 



STEPS IN LANGUAGE LESSONS. 315 

soon as possible after the error do not hold, the follow- 
ing reasons for doing so suggest themselves: 

1. It is the only way to make the correction effec- 
tive enough. 

2. It avoids looseness of criticism. 

3. It tends to subordinate the language to the 
thought. 

In order that the correction may be as effective as 
possible it should be made so that the correct language 
form could be united in the same experience with the 
thought to be expressed while the thought is intense. 
If the correct form is not given the incorrect form will 
be united with the thought in its greatest intensity, and 
thus most strongly welded with it. After the thought 
has lost its initial intensity no form either correct or in- 
correct can be so strongly welded to it. It is much like 
striking the iron when it is hot. For this reason there 
should not be delay of correction longer than is unavoid- 
able. 

Postponement of correction almost inevitably leads 
to looseness of criticism. The error passes from the 
teacher's mind in the absorption of the recitation and 
is forgotten. This is unavoidable to some degree if cor- 
rection is left for the end of the recitation. 

One of the difficulties of primary language teaching 
is that the learner learns poorly to use language cor- 
rectly by studying the language. Everything possible 
should be done to have him acquire a good language 
habit indirectly; that is, with his mind focused on the 
thought and not on the language. To wait for the end 



316 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

of the recitation and then call his attention to the form 
is to focus his attention on the language, but to get him 
into the habit of picking up the correct form in the 
midst of his thought tends towards the mastery of the 
language while he is mentally absorbed in the 
thought he wishes to express. In the most skillful 
teaching the corrections in oral primary language work 
will be made as nearly immediately after the error 
occurs as possible. 

In the written work some time must of necessity 
elapse before the errors can be corrected. The criticisms 
in written language must be very carefully and very 
conscientiously made, however. They must be made in 
such a way that the learner's attention will surely be 
called to them. It is sometimes a good plan to call for 
a second writing, or even a third, of the production, 
with a view to improvement in the language. This will 
call attention to all corrections. A place should be 
reached in the work which will warrant never permit- 
ting an error in language to go by without having it 
corrected. 

To criticise in a helpful way is an art. Teachers 
frequently fail in their language and composition work 
because of weakness in criticism. 

There are cases in school of students who have such 
bad language habits that almost every other word is an 
error. These are neglected cases, of course. To correct 
every error such students make would be overwhelming. 
In such cases it is best to study their errors, classify 
them, and begin on a few of the worst. After these 



STEPS IN LANGUAGE LESSONS. 317 

have been eliminated to some degree, others should grad- 
ually be taken up till a place is reached which will 
warrant the teacher's having every one corrected. 

And let it be remembered that nothing short of 
everlastingly keeping at it will bring large success. Most 
teachers are appallingly negligent of their children's 
language in all recitations except the language recita- 
tion. This point of bad pedagogy can be and should be 
gotten rid of in all school work from the kindergarten 
to the university. 

Points to Be Kept in Mind in Language Teaching, 
— The study up to the present place may be summar- 
ized in the following points, which are worth keeping 
in mind: 

1. The main distinctive purpose of language les- 
sons is to lead the learner to form the habit of using 
correct, clear, elegant and energetic language in com- 
municating his thought and feeling. 

2. A secondary distinctive purpose of language 
lessons is to give the learner an adequate basis for the 
grammar work to be done later. 

3. Language lessons in common with other sub- 
jects have it as their purpose to give the learner knowl- 
edge valuable for guidance in right living. 

4. Language lessons in common with other sub- 
jects also have it as their purpose to furnish the learner 
mental discipline to the end of accurate and ready 
thinking. 

5. Language lessons should be in harmony with 
the following principles deduced from an analysis of 



318 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

the mind^s natural way of learning language and of 
using it: 

a. The language lesson must correlate with 
the learner's life. 

b. The learner best acquires a mastery of lan- 
guage by dealing with it with his mind focused, in so 
far as possible, on the object of thought. 

c. There is a distinctive language period in 
the learner's life in which he learns language as readily 
as he learns to walk. This period is, in general, from 
the time he begins to talk up to the age of thirteen or 
fourteen. If the learner does not acquire, to a large 
extent, the use of good language in this period, he either 
never will do so or will do so at great cost and with 
much difficulty. 

6. Eternal vigilance in kindly correcting the 
learner's language is the price of good language habits. 

7. In general in all language teaching the steps 
are as follows: 

a. Developing thought and feeling. 

b. Stimulating to the communication of this 
thought and feeling. 

c. Correcting kindly and sympathetically aJl 
errors. 

Concrete Illustrations. — Under this heading some 
illustrations of what language lessons should be, in the 
light of the previous study, will be studied. 

The Blue Violet. — This lesson is adapted to chil- 
dren of the second or third school year, and is based 
upon Nature Study work. The time of year is the 



STEPS IN LANGUAGE LESSONS. 319 

last of March or first of April in this latitude. The 
lesson is entirely oral. 

The questions by the teacher are to bring out the 
discussion concerning the life of the blue violet. The 
children have been stimulated to watch for the coming of 
violets. 

What kind of home has your little violet? Does 
it live in dry ground or wet ground? Is its home in 
the sunshine or in the shade ? Does it live in the woods 
or in the field ? Have you seen any blue violets in other 
places ? 

How did you know where to look for little violet? 
Was it there all winter? Could you see it in the win- 
ter? Why could you not? Did Jack Frost kill all of 
the plant ? Why could he not kill the root ? How could 
the soil, leaves, and snow keep the frost from killing 
little violet? 

What part of little violet could you see first this 
spring? Why should the leaves come up first? 

The teacher here tells the children that the leaves 
protect the flowers. They stand up around the flowers 
like a row of little soldiers. They are, also, the kitchen 
where the food is prepared for the whole plant, flowers 
and all. 

Where does the little violet get its food? How do 
the roots get it from the ground? Do the little roots 
have mouths? Can you see the mouths of the little 
roots ? 

The teacher here may show how roots eat by show- 



320 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY, 

ing how they could take up salt, soda, or sugar dis- 
solved in water. 

How does little violet get the food up to the leaves ? 
How could the stem and leaves draw it up? What do 
the stem and leaves- draw it up for ? 

What must be done with food in the kitchen before 
it is good to eat? Where do the leaves get heat to cook 
the food which they have drawn up from the roots? 
Could the little leaves get along without the sun ? Why 
could they not? 

When your mother cooks what do you see rise from 
the cooking food? What makes the steam rise? 

Here the teacher may explain to the children how 
the steam rises from the leaves when they are preparing 
food. This may be shown by putting a plant under an 
inverted glass tumbler, and showing the moisture which 
collects. 

How did the moisture get out of the leaves? Can 
you see the little windows? 

The teacher here tells the pupils that air goes 
through these tiny windows and mixes with the food 
before it is good to eat. 

While the roots and leaves were working away, what 
was the little flower doing? How did it look when you 
first saw it? What happened to the little green cloak 
before you could see Violet's dress? Would you like 
to know what name the pieces of her dress have? Can 
you remember that they are called petals? How many 
petals has Violet's dress? See if the petals are all of 
the same size and shape. Who can find a pocket in one ? 



STEPS IN LANGUAGE LESSONS. 321 

What is in the pocket? Taste it and see. Honey? It 
is called nectar. What do you think the nectar is there 
for? Can you think of anything that would like to eat 
it? Bees? Butterflies? 

At this place the teacher may explain that the bees 
come to the violet to get the nectar, and that the bee 
thrusts its long mouth down into the pocket of the petal 
in doing so. In doing this he gets flower dust (poUen) 
on his head and long mouth. This pollen is to feed the 
tiny seeds so they will grow. The home of the seeds 
may be examined and explained and the process by 
which the pollen comes into contact with them. This 
work must be done with the flowers in the hands of the 
children.* 

Enough has already been suggested for several les- 
sons for second year pupils, but the work may thus be 
carried on through the entire life history of the violet. 

The questions only are here given, but the infer- 
ence is easily made as to the nature of the work on the 
children's part. They engage in a free, open^ interest- 
ing and spirited talk. 

The adaptation of this lesson to do the three follow- 
ing things is evident : 

1. The development of thought and feeling. 

2. The inducing of the children to express this 
thought and feeling. 

3. Opportunities for quietly and kindly giving cor- 
rect language forms, since the children in such inter- 
esting discussions are likely to make errors of language. 

This lesson has the following to commend it: 



322 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

1. It correlates with the learner's use of language 
in life both before and after his school days. 

2. He is learning to use good language with his 
mind engrossed with the object of thought. 

3. He is fixing the habit of using correct, clear, 
elegant and energetic language in expressing his thought 
and feeling. 

4. It gives good exercise in systematic thinking 
to the end that the learner may become an accurate 
and ready thinker — mental discipline. 

5. It gives the learner knowledge valuable to him 
in life. 

The lesson is oral throughout and so does not aim 
directly at correct habits in written language. Neither 
does it aim distinctively at laying a basis for the study 
of grammar. 

Indian Corn. — This lesson on Indian corn is adapted 
to fifth or sixth year pupils, and could best be taught 
near the beginning of the fall term of school. The corn 
plant is before the children for observation, and in re- 
sponse to the teacher's questions, they give, for illustra- 
tion, we will say the following answers, which the 
teacher writes on the board. 

On the plant as a whole: 

1. This corn stalk looks like a big stalk of grass. 

2. It is seven and one-fourth feet high. 

3. There is a central axis from one and one-half 
inches in diameter to less than half an inch. 

4. It has a bushy-looking brush at the top which 
is called the tassel. 



STEPS IN LANGUAGE LESSONS. 323 

5. The central axis is called the stem or culm. 

6. It has a bunch of roots at the lower end of the 
culm. 

7. The tassel crowns the culm. 

8. The culm has streamer like blades on opposite 
sides of it. 

9. This plant has eleven leaves or blades. 

10. The whole plant is green tinged with yellow 
in places. 

11. This plant has two ears, one on each side of 
the culm. 

12. Silk-like hairs stream out from the end of the 
ears. 

13. The hairs and the tassel are the flowers of the 
corn. 

14. The parts of this corn plant are the culm, the 
roots, the tassel, the leaves, the hairs and the fruit. 

On the culm: 

1. The culm is about seven feet long. 

2. The culm is largest at the bottom and gradu- 
ally grows smaller toward the top. 

3. The culm stands upright. 

4. It is the supporting part of the plant. 

5. The culm is nearly cylindrical in form. 

6. At distances of from five to seven inches on the 
culm there are nodes. 

7. The nodes are thicker parts and denser parts 
of the culm. 

8. The culm is pithy within. 

9. There is a thin woody layer around the pithy in- 



324 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

side. This woody layer is very dense and hard. It 
gives strength and firmness to the culm, 

10. The parts of the culm between the nodes are 
called internodes. 

11. The internodes have semicircular grooves, one 
for each node. 

12. The grooves are on alternate sides of the inter- 
nodes. 

On the roots : 

1. The roots are cylindrical in form. 

2. They are of two kinds — fibrous and coarse. 

3. They grow out from the nodes. 

4. They are arranged in circles around the bottom 
of the culm. 

5. They have two uses; one is to take food from 
the soil, and the other is to anchor the plant. 

6. The roots of the highest circle are large, strong, 
and form bench-like braces to hold the plant upright. 

7. There are twelve in the upper circle. 

8. The circles below do not have so many. 

9. There are five distinct circles on this plant. 
10. They are almost white. 

Enough has been given to indicate the nature of 
this kind of language work. But in the actual language 
teaching, the tassel, the leaves, the flower and the fruit 
would be treated in a way similar to the treatment of 
the plant as a whole, the culm and the roots. 

As much may be done each day as the time of the 
recitation will permit. As the students give the points 
the teacher writes them on the board. Then the stu- 



STEPS IN LANGUAGE LESSONS. 325 

dents copy them neatly in note books. After dealing 
with the whole plant in this way, the students are 
shown that what they have ( 1 ) on the plant as a whole ; 
(2) on the culm; (3) on the roots; (4) on the leaves, 
etc., is not in a readable form. They then are asked to 
put it into a form so it will read smoothly. That on 
one of the points, the culm for instance is usually 
enough for one lesson. The work as the students have 
it is read in the class, carefully corrected by the teacher 
and returned to the students, and kept by them. After 
having gone through the points thus, the students are 
asked to write out the whole, noting carefully the cor- 
rections previously made on each part. 

The following points should be seen in this kind of 
language work: 

1. It teaches the learner how to make his language 
coherent, how to compose. 

2. It teaches in a natural way how to paragraph, 
this lesson naturally falling into seven paragraphs: 
(1) the plant as a whole; (2) the culm; (3) the roots; 
(4) the tassel; (5) the leaves; (6) the flower; (7) the 
fruit. 

3. It is a description, for it deals with a particular 
object as to its co-existent attributes and parts. 

4. It is in harmony with all of the principles of 
language lessons previously studied. 

5. It helps to carry out all the purposes of lan- 
guage lessons except that of laying a basis for the study 
of grammar. 



326 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

6. There is material indicated here for fifteen good 
language lessons. 

Language lessons of this kind have been given to 
children with striking success. Thus such lessons have 
both theory and experience to attest their value. There 
are no better primary language lessons possible. 

Imaginative Lesson. — The following kind of lessons 
is valuable to vary the work and is in harmony with 
the principles of language lessons for the most part: 

Two boys and a little girl were picking white clover 
flowers along a road. They came to an open gate which 
led to a beautiful lawn where there were many clovers. 
The children went in and were gathering the clover 
blossoms when there rushed at them a great, savage 
dog. Finish the story by telling what you think hap- 
pened. 

Once a boy about twelve years old, with his dog 
Jack, went fishing. As they were coming home across 
a large pasture field, the father of a flock of sheep 
chased the boy and butted him down. Each time the 
boy would try to get up, the sheep would knock him 
down. Jack, who was lingering along behind, saw his 
master's plight, and came rushing up. Finish the story. 

Laying a Basis for Grammar. — Another kind of 
language lesson which has for its distinctive purpose 
to lay a basis for grammar work is the following : 

It came in on the train yesterday. 

Just what do you know about the thing which ' * It " 
makes you think of in this sentence? What enables 
you to know this about it? 



STEPS IN LANGUAGE LESSONS. 327 

The five horses were in the field eating their break- 
fast. 

Just what do you know about the number of horses 
mentioned in this sentence? What in the sentence en- 
ables you to know that? 

These are assignments given to the class before reci- 
tation. In the recitation in the second case the children 
should see, or be led to see that there are more than one 
horse, and that is all that is known by the form of the 
word ''horses." ''Were," also shows the same point. 
The same thing is also shown by "their." "Five" 
shows that more than one is spoken of, but also shows 
just how many. 

Such lessons as these have the following points of 
merit : 

1. It gives the children something to think about 
so as to develop thought and feeling. 

2. They use oral language under the stress of 
thought and feeling, and thus give opportunities for 
correcting errors. 

3. They are learning to discover the exact shades 
of meaning, or relation, of a term in the sentence, which 
is the best basis for grammar work they can possess. 

* The lesson on the Blue Violet is adapted to some ex- 
tent from McMurry's Special Method in Science. 



CHAPTER XXIV. 

ERRORS IN TEACHING PRIMARY LANGUAGE. 

Prevalence of. — Primary language teaching is yet 
very poorly done in most of the schools. Thus errors 
in the work are very common. The following is a list 
of the more common and flagrant ones : 

1. Making language lessons a kind of primary 
grammar work. 

2. The teaching largely of principles in the light 
of which the learner is expected to use good language. 

3. Insufficient development of thought and feeling 
before asking for expression. 

4. Bad selections of objects for study. 

5. Negligence in criticisms. 

In the nature of things primary language lessons 
which are nothing but a sort of granmaar work can not 
do much toward giving the learner good language 
habits. The work is too abstract and difficult for the 
learner to learn enough grammar to apply grammatical 
principles to his speaking and writing while he is in 
the language period. But even if he could learn gram- 
mar it would help him very little in acquiring good 
language habits. The reasons why this is true have 
previously been discussed. Primary grammar lessons 
are all but worthless as an exercise for fixing with the 
learner habits of good language. 



ERRORS IN TEACHING PRIMARY LANGUAGE. 329 

No child ever naturally learned language by rule. 
In the development of a language in the life of a race, 
the language itself precedes the grammar of the lan- 
guage by many thousand years. The order is, first the 
language then much later the rules. So it is in the 
learner's life; first, the language then the rules. This 
is nature's order. Thus to attempt to teach the learner 
rules and principles is to attempt to violate nature's 
order, which is as a rule very bad pedagogy. In pri- 
mary language teaching it is so bad that not only the 
desired result will not be attained, the habit of good 
language, but some unfortunate ones will accrue. Some 
of these are arrested development and antipathy for the 
work. 

Perhaps the most common error in primary lan- 
guage teaching is insufficient development of thought 
and feeling. Almost everywhere teachers may be found 
asking children to talk on this subject and that subject 
in the absence of any thought and feeling in their minds 
to express. They are likewise asked to write on subject 
after subject when they have no thought to express, and 
of course can not produce coherent language. It is not 
only absurd, but positively idiotic to ask children to 
talk or write on a subject without seeing to it that they 
have some knowledge to express and which they desire 
to express. All language lessons are sure to be failures 
unless faithful care is given to the development of 
thought and feeling. 

Objects of study for language lessons may be poor 
in several ways. First, they may not be of themselves 



330 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

interesting to the class. Secondly, they may be too hard 
or too easy for the ability of the class. Thirdly, they 
may not be worth studying. 

If the objects studied are not directly interesting, 
there is danger that the lesson will drag and become 
a bore to both teacher and pupils. Such work is dis- 
agreeable and likely to be profitless. 

If the object of study is too easy the children will 
have the feeling that it is trifling. If it is too difficult 
the children will not be able to do much with it and 
will have the feeling of discouragement. This will para- 
lyze endeavor. 

If the object is not worth studying there will be a 
waste of time and energy. And the lesson may degen- 
erate into mere juggling of language terms in which the 
student learns to talk without saying anything. 

Negligence in criticism is an error in language 
teaching far-reaching in its effects, and a common one. 
Instead of most teachers holding their students to good 
language in the various school subjects, most do little 
or nothing in that direction outside of the language reci- 
tation. One can go into the recitation rooms of the 
university, the normal school, the high school or the 
common school almost anywhere and find work on the 
board abounding in errors of language to which no at- 
tention has been given. One can go into the recitations; 
in the university, the high school or the primary school 
almost anywhere and hear errors in the oral recitation 
work which pass by unnoticed by either teacher or 
learner, apparently. 



ERRORS IN TEACHING PRIMARY LANGUAGE. 331 

Such teachers frequently, when attention is called 
to this negligence will say they are not teaching lan- 
guage and that they have no time for such things. 
But such reasons are not valid and show something 
radically wrong with the teacher's thinking as well as 
with his teaching. It is a certainty that the teacher who 
knows what education is, who has the best interests of 
his students at heart, who is careful, and who is con- 
scientious will constantly watch up his children's lan- 
guage. Not to do so is to neglect one of each teacher's 
highest duties to those whom he teaches. 



CHAPTER XXV. 

THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF HISTORY. 

Nature of History. — One's idea of the nature of a 
thing always determines his attitude of mind toward 
that thing. And his attitude of mind determines to a 
large degree how one acts toward anjrthing. Thus one's 
idea of the nature of history will determine largely 
how he will teach history. Thus it is of first importance 
to the student of method in history that he have a cor- 
rect idea of the nature of history ; that he have a correct 
idea of what history actually is. 

One's general idea of history is his concept of his- 
tory. It may contain part of the elements that go to 
make up the right idea of history and may exclude 
part. It may contain elements that should be included 
in the concept of history and no more; that is, one's 
concept of history may be right, partly right or wholly 
wrong. The student of method in history is in much 
need from the very start of having the most helpful 
concept of history. It will serve as a guide to him 
all through his future study of method of history. 

Different Views of History. — There have been dif- 
ferent views of what history is held from the time of 
Herodotus, the father of history, down to the present 
time. Those held at present may for our purpose here 
be put as follows: 



THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF HISTORY. 333 

1. There is a view that history is the record of 
events. 

2. There is a view that history is the events them- 
selves. 

3. There is the view that history is the ceaseless 
change in the life of a people. 

The Record of Events. — The first view, that history 
is a record of events, is too superficial for much help 
either to the student of history or to the student of 
method in history. It is the view of the unthinking, 
undoubtedly. 

According to this view a people whose records are 
all destroyed would have no history, or a people who 
left no records would have no history. Or again if the 
records of a people are destroyed its history is de- 
stroyed. 

All the records left to us of the Mound-builders are 
the mounds and a few utensils and ornaments scattered 
over different parts of the country. According to this 
concept of history these mounds, utensils and ornaments 
constitute the history of the Mound-builders. 

There certainly was and is something in the life of 
every people which may better be thought of as history 
than the records, and the study of which will prove 
more helpful to the learner than the study of records. 
In truth only a small part of the ceaseless change in the 
life of a people is ever embodied in records. 

Those students are to be pitied whose teacher has 
no more comprehensive and helpful concept of history 
than that it is a record of events. 



334 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

The Events, the History. — The concept of history, 
that the events themselves are the history, is better than 
the concept previously studied, but is not satisfying to 
the mental hunger of the thinker. It, too, is more or 
less superficial. 

Events, from ex, out and venio, I come are those 
things which come out. Thus the events of man come 
out of something, and it is that from which they come 
which is more fundamental than the events. 

There is change, movement, progress in the life of 
a people and this change is first in time and first in im- 
portance a mental, or spiritual, change. 

Events are the physical or external manifestations 
of this spiritual change in the life of a people. This 
spiritual change always precedes the events and in his- 
tory is much more fundamental than the events; and 
no event can be well understood except as it is seen in 
its relation to the spiritual movement in the life of the 
people. 

The concept of history, that the. events are the 
history, is too narrow and emphasizes the less important, 
the events, thus tending to cause its possessor to lose 
sight of the thing of utmost importance, the spiritual 
progress in the life of the people. 

This is thus not an adequate concept of history 
either for the student of history or for the student of 
method in history. 

History, a Ceaseless Change in the Life of a People. 
— The concept, that history is a ceaseless change in the 
life of a people, is the concept of the student and the 



THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF HISTORY. 335 

thinker. It is wide in scope, including all there is to 
be known in the life of a people. It is deep in intensity, 
leading the learner into the fountain sources and the 
mainsprings of all human endeavor. 

This concept includes both the events and the spir- 
itual change in the people's lives, for the ceaseless 
change in a people's life is both spiritual and physical. 

This is the only concept of history satisfying to the 
mental hunger of the one possessed of the passion for 
historical truth. It is the only largely helpful concept 
of history, and the only one which should be held by 
the student of history, and especially by the student of 
method in history. 

Definition of History. — The ceaseless change in the 
life of a people is always a conflict, or struggle, for 
higher life. It may be the struggle for material wealth, 
an economic struggle; it may be the struggle for more 
knowledge, an intellectual struggle ; it may be the strug- 
gle to satisfy the hunger for the beautiful, an aesthetic 
struggle; it may be for the betterment of social condi- 
tions in the family, church, state, and school, a social 
struggle; it may be a moral struggle or a religious one. 
But it is always a struggle in some form for more life, 
for higher life; that is, a life fuller of the possibilities 
of life, a life fruitful and intensive in all that gives 
integral self-satisfaction, the highest degree of happi- 
ness. 

This struggle of the race is shown by events to some 
degree and in part known from records. The events 
grow out of and manifest the spiritual part of the strug- 



336 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

gle, but the struggle is both spiritual and physical. 
Since an event is a change which has pretty definite 
limits, it would hardly be accurate to say the events 
manifest the physical part of the struggle. The events 
are the physical part of the struggle. 

Only a small part of the struggle of the human 
race for higher life has ever been or can ever be re- 
corded. But part of it may be known from records, 
using the term, record, in its broadest sense as includ- 
ing ruins, architecture, paintings, sculptural works, 
writings, etc. Most of the hopes, aspirations, sorrows, 
disappointments, anguish and tragic events as well as 
the every-day, commonplace affairs in the struggle of a 
people are lost to us and can only be inferred or 
imagined. 

The conclusion from the foregoing discussion on 
the nature of history gives the following definition of 
history : 

History is the struggle of a people for higher life 
as manifested hy events to some degree and in part 
known hy records. 

* History is the accumulated experience of the race. ' ' 
— Judson. 

^^The change y the movement ^ the progress which 
occurs in the life of a people is that people's history." 
— Kemp. 

''History is the evolution of civilization through 
institutional forms in a nation's life." — Hoover. 

Historic Forces. — A historic force is anything^ 
which in any way affects the struggle of a people for 



THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF HISTORY. 337 

higher life. It may intensify the struggle; it may les- 
sen its intensity; it may retard the struggle or it may 
accelerate it; it may postpone it or it may hasten it. 
And it may shift the intensity from one phase 
to another. It does not matter in what way the 
thing affects the struggle; if it affects it at all it is a 
historic force. 

Classes of Historic Forces. — Historic forces are of 
two classes : 1. Spiritual forces. 2. Physical forces. 

The following are spiritual historic forces: 1. The 
instinct to progress. 2. Traditions. 3. Ideals. 4. Songs. 

5. Scientific truths. 6. Laws. 7. Creeds. 8. Isms. 

The following are physical historic forces: 1. Cli- 
mate. 2 Soil. 3. Coast line. 4. Mountains. 5. Rivers. 

6. Natural productions. 7. Canals. 8. Railroads. 

Instinct to Progress. — It is inborn in man to want 
to better his condition. He is unwilling to live no better 
than his ancestors did. If this had not been true we 
would have had no science and philosophy; no religion 
and art; no constitutions and laws; no steamboat, no 
railroad, no telegraph, no telephone, no bicycle, nor no 
automobile. This desire for progress is man's most 
deep-seated and characteristic trait. It differentiates 
him from God and the animals. , 

"Progress, man's distinctive mark alone, 
Not God's, and not the beasts'; God is, they are, 
Man partly is and wholly hopes to be." 

No other historic force is so largely influential in 
making history as this one, the instinct to progress. 
Traditions. — Tradition is from trado^ I hand down. 



338 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

Those customs, precepts, proverbs, and superstitions 
which have been handed down from one generation to 
another are traditions and are historical forces. The 
lives of people are influenced by tradition in every way 
to such a large extent that one is astonished to learn 
for the first time how little new each generation adds. 
Nearly the whole body of language is tradition. Re- 
ligion is almost wholly tradition. In the United States 
the Monroe Doctrine is a tradition. 

Ideals. — An ideal is anything which has no actual 
existence except in the mind as an idea. A government 
in which all who live there could obey all the laws and 
be happy is an ideal. It has no actual existence except 
in the mind as an idea. 

An independent country in which all are free to 
do right, and are equal in opportunity was an ideal to 
the colonists of the United States. This is what they 
struggled for in the American Revolution. That it was 
a potent historic force is evident. 

Songs. — A song may be a historic force. Especially 
is this true of national songs and songs which have be- 
come the symbols of some thought around which clings 
strong feeling. There is something about such songs 
which inspires, quickens the step, and prompts to reso- 
lution and deeds of valor and heroism. Of such are 
Dixie, America, Fatherland, God Save the Queen, Star- 
Spangled Banner and Yankee Doodle. 

Scientific Truths. — Scientific truths frequently 
change in many ways the struggle in the life of a peo- 
ple. The scientific truth that tuberculosis is a disease 



THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF HISTORY. 339 

caused by a germ and is contagious is a truth which 
has had much to do with laws for its prevention, the 
building of sanitaria and hospitals. 

The scientific truth that gold ore of a low grade 
could be worked at a large profit by the cyanide of 
potassium process has a very close connection with the 
money question not only in the United States but in 
the world as a whole. 

Laws. — As an illustration of a law which was a 
potent historical force the Fugitive Slave Law is good. 
It is closely connected with the secession of the south- 
ern states, the Civil War, Lincoln, Emancipation Pro- 
clamation, etc. 

Other illustrations are the Stamp Act, and the Tea 
Tax, which so intensified the spiritual struggle in the 
lives of the colonists. 

Creeds. — The belief in a personal God, and that he 
created and providentially governs the world for man 
combined with current thought on this subject is a 
creed. 

As illustrations of creeds which are historical forces 
those of the Presbyterian and Methodist churches are 
good. 

Isms. — Any traditions regarding the origin, pur- 
pose and destiny of man combined with current thought 
on these questions is an ism. Good illustrations of isms 
which have been historical forces are Puritanism, Hedon- 
ism, and Epicureanism. 

Climate. — Climate is the condition of any place 
with regard to heat and moisture. The climate of the 



340 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

south was such that cotton was a profitable product, 
and such that the Negro thrived there. These two 
things and others made slavery profitable in the south. 
The slave question was an issue over which the struggle 
grew intense both spiritually and physically between 
the northern section of our country and the southern. 

Soil. — Soil is in general the "thin layer of surface 
earth that, like some great blanket, is tucked around the 
wrinkled and age-beaten form of our earth." 

The soil of the Mississippi valley is so fertile that 
a portion of this region is called the granary of North 
America. Here great cities spring up and here will be 
the home eventually of the most populous societies in 
the United States. In these cities will be found the 
great rushing, throbbing, struggling masses of human- 
ity. Here the hardest problems of government, schools, 
churches and business are to be worked out. 

Coast Lines. — The coast line of a country influences 
the history of a country. If the coast line be regular, 
there will be few harbors and places for the landing of 
boats and steamships. Commerce will be less, coast 
cities will be few, international intercourse will be lack- 
ing and the growth of the civilization of the people 
much slower. Thus coast line affects the struggle of 
a people for better life and this makes it a historic 
force. 

Mountains. — Mountains are barriers to commerce 
and travel, and commerce and travel are part of the 
ceaseless movement in the life of a people. Mountains 
thus hinder this movement and are historical forces. 



THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF HISTORY. 341 

For a long time in the history of the United States 
the Appalachian Mountains walled back immigration to 
the Ohio, and Mississippi valleys, and kept the growth 
of civilization confined chiefly to the Atlantic states. 

Rivers. — Rivers furnish routes of commerce and 
travel; they furnish power for manufacturing and 
other industries, and water for irrigation; also, outlets 
for drainage. These things contribute largely to the 
ceaseless movement in the life of a people. They affect 
the economic aspect of the struggle — the production, the 
preparation, and the distribution of material wealth. 

Natural Productions. — Natural productions are 
grains, fruits, vegetables, game, fish, timber, stone, coal, 
lead, copper, silver, gold, etc. Where these are found or 
may be produced in considerable quantities, societies, 
villages, towns and cities spring up. These bring 
churches, schools, newspapers, libraries, museums, parks 
and all other institutions of civilized life. Here every 
aspect of the complex struggle of a people for higher 
life will surge full and strong. Natural productions 
are thus among the most potent of historical forces. 

Canals. — Canals, like rivers, facilitate commerce, 
travel, sanitation and irrigation. All these help people 
in their efforts to live better lives. 

Among noted examples in the United States are 
the Chicago Drainage Canal and the Erie Canal. The 
first connects the Great Lakes with the Mississippi River, 
and the latter was the means by which the produce from 
the Great Lakes region and the rich Mohawk valley was 
transported to the sea. 



342 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

Railroads. — Railroads are the greatest means of 
commerce and travel possessed by a people. Where 
they go civilization is sure to follow, if the climate and 
soil will support a civilization. Through the agency of 
the railroads material wealth is exchanged. The pro- 
ducts of one part of the country when produced in 
excess are transported to another where they are con- 
sumed. Thus the economic struggle of a people is 
changed from a simple one to a complex one by rail- 
roads. 

Large inland cities could hardly arise without rail- 
roads. They could hardly do so, for the necessities of 
life could not without great difficulty be obtained. 

Elements of the Historical Concept. — The ceaseless 
struggle of a people for higher life has been seen to be 
the history of that people. An analysis of this concept 
of history will reveal the following points: 

1. The spiritual growth in the life of a people. 

2. Events. 

3. The events as manifestation of this growth. 

4. The events as the cause of this growth. 

5. The events as the effect of this growth. 

The spiritual struggle of the people has always 
resulted in growth in some way. Of course there have 
been retrograde movements in history spiritually and 
physically. The march of progress has been zigzag. But 
even in the zigzag movements of the struggle growth in 
some way is always discernible, and in the end the hu- 
man race has advanced spiritually. 

Events have before been seen to be those physical 



THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF HISTORY. 343 

changes with more or less definite limits, which come 
out of the spiritual struggle. Thus the Boston Tea 
Party, and the sinking of the Maine were events in 
history. 

There is no way for one to know the growth in the 
life of a people except by the events. Thus events are 
the manifestation of the growth in the life of a people. 

The growth in the minds of the people of the idea 
of equality is manifested in the Declaration of Inde- 
pendence, the election of Lincoln, the Emancipation 
Proclamation, the victory of the North at Appomattox, 
and the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amend- 
ments to the Constitution. 

Events in history cause growth in the life of the 
people. The persecution of the Quakers in Massachu- 
setts caused the growth of religious tolerance. The in- 
vention of the cotton gin caused a growth in the senti- 
ment of the people regarding slavery. The Boston Tea 
Party caused a gro^vth in the determination of the 
colonists to resist what they regarded as the unjust 
attitude of England toward them. 

The events are also the effect of the growth in the 
spiritual struggle of the people. The Declaration of 
Independence was an effect of the thought and feeling 
in the minds of the people that so long as they re- 
mained subjects of the mother country freedom for the 
enjoyment of equal opportunity would be restricted. 

The Emancipation Proclamation was an effect of 
the growth of the thought and feeling against slavery 
in our country. 



344 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

Suhject-Matter. — It is to be remembered that the 
subject-matter of any subject or lesson is the material 
of study in that subject or lesson; also, that every 
subject-matter consists of two things: (1) some facts; 
(2) some relations of these facts. 

The facts to be studied in history are ( 1 ) the events ; 
(2) the spiritual struggle in the life of the people. 
These two things are the obtrusive facts in the life of 
every people, and no people ever has existed as a people 
without these two things having constituted the con- 
crete realities of their individual and national existences. 

The relation in which these facts are to be studied 
or taught in history is threefold: 1. As manifestation. 
2. As cause. 3. As effect. 

The events manifest the spiritual struggle in the 
life of a people. Without events there would be no way 
for us to know the spiritual struggle through which the 
race has gone. But by learning the events we are able 
to infer ivhat the spiritual struggle lying back of them 
must have been. Thus the spiritual struggle is known 
to our minds; that is, manifested to them. 

The events are the cause of the spiritual struggle, 
too. They cause conflicting opinions, feelings and men- 
tal efforts not only in the minds of individuals but 
between the minds of different individuals acting singly 
or in groups. Thus events in history have a second his- 
torical relation. 

Again the events are the effects of the spiritual 
struggle in the life of a people. Any struggle in the 
spiritual life of a people which becomes intense enough 



THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF HISTORY. 345 

will burst forth in events sooner or later. These events 
are the effect of the struggle in the mind of the people. 
Thus events in history have a third historical relation. 

From this study the following statement of the sub- 
ject-matter of history is reached : 

The subject-matter of history is the events of man 
as manifestation, cause and effect of his spiritual strug- 
gle for higher life. 

This statement for the subject-matter of history 
shows that one who learns history must master (1) the 
events of man; (2) the spiritual growth of the race; 
(3) the triple relation existing between these two. 

An Organizing Principle. — Every subject in the 
school curriculum which may rightly be called a sepa- 
rate subject has some central truth in it which organizes 
it. The facts in the subject cling around this central 
truth like the grape berries of a bunch cling to the 
stem. Each fact of the subject instances the organizing 
principle of the subject, and can be fully understood 
only when it is seen to do so. The organizing prin- 
ciple gives order, system and continuity to the subject. 
Without it facts are almost worthless, since they, iso- 
lated and disconnected, are unusable. 

The organizing principle of any subject is a rela- 
tion. It is the relation of the facts in the subject- 
matter. This may be seen from the following : the facts 
of the revolution of the earth around the sun might be 
studied in either of the two subjects, astronomy or 
geography, but not in the same relation. If they were 
studied in relation to the movements of the solar system 



346 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

as a whole, the study would be a lesson in astronomy. 
But if they were studied in relation to their effect on 
the distribution of relief forms, climate and life upon 
the earth's surface, the study would be a lesson in 
geography. This would be because the organizing prin- 
ciples of astronomy and geography are different. 

History has its relation in its subject-matter and 
so has its organizing principle. It is the triple relation 
between the events in history and the spiritual struggle 
of the race for higher life. The following is the formal 
statement for it : The organizing principle of history is 
the triple relation of manifestation^ cause and effect be- 
tween the events of man and his spiritual struggle for 
higher life. 

Value of the Organizing Principle. — The value of 
the organizing principle of any subject to the teacher 
and the learner can not well be overestimated. It does 
the following desirable things: 

1. It gives the right viewpoint in the subject. 

2. It enables one to grasp the subject as an orderly 
whole, and to see the end from the beginning. 

3. It tends to systematic, logical habits of thought, 

4. It enables one to remember facts in a perfectly 
natural and rational way. 

5. It stimulates to interest, and economizes time 
and energy. 

6. It makes work definite and specific, and pre- 
vents scattering, superficial work. 

The Functions of the Organizing Principle. — In 
history the organizing principle has at any rate four 



THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF HISTORY. 347 

functions, as follows: 1. A selective function. 2. An 
interpreting function. 3. An emphasizing function. 4. 
A dividing function. 

The Selective Function. — The current of human 
history flows so wide and deep that no one in a life 
time can master it in full. There is too much of it. 
Thus there must be a selection of the material of study 
in history. The organizing principle of history enables 
the teacher or learner to do this rationally. In the 
light of the organizing principle of history, those things 
will he selected for study which mmiifest, causey and 
are the effect of the spiritual struggle of a people for 
higher life. 

Usually in the past the selection of historical ma- 
terial for study has been determined by the text-book. 
That is to say, teachers have not been self-directive 
enough in this subject to select even from the text-book 
the historical material which ought to be used and omit 
that which is not fit for use. That the text-books them- 
selves do not always contain the best historical ma- 
terial is evident. 

In a text-book at hand a good deal of space is 
given to the Mound-builders; also a good deal to the 
story of Pocahontas, but the attitude of the governor of 
Virginia toward free schools is not even mentioned. The 
latter is evidently of great historical importance, while 
each of the former is of little or no historical impor- 
tance. 

Thus the value of the selective function of the or- 
ganizing principle of history is, that it makes the teacher 



348 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

and learner self-directive in choosing material for study 
of real historical worth. 

The Interpreting Function. — The interpreting func- 
tion of the organizing principle of history enables the 
teacher and student to place an interpretation upon his- 
torical events. According to this principle an event in 
history has been interpreted when the spiritual struggle 
which it manifests is seen, when the causes which lead 
to it are seen, and when the things which grow out of 
it as a cause are seen. Thus to interpret an historical 
event is to think it in its coexistent historical relations, 
its past historical relations, and in its future historical 
relations. 

For illustration, the Emancipation Proclamation is 
interpreted when one understands the spiritual struggle 
which it at that time revealed, or manifested; when one 
understands the causes, both spiritual and physical, 
which led to it; and when one sees the spiritual and 
physical movements flowing from it and of which it was 
a cause. 

Too often in history teaching the event only is 
learned, no interpretation being placed upon it what- 
ever. Such history teaching and learning, of course, 
fails in almost everything which makes history a valu- 
able subject in school. 

The History Habit. — If the child in beginning the 
study of history is taught in a small way at any rate to 
place a historical interpretation upon historical events, 
and is gradually led to do this more and more as he 
progresses in his historical work, a place will be reached 



THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF HISTORY. 349 

where his mind will be dissatisfied to learn mere his- 
torical events. It will want to see events in their his- 
torical relations, and will dislike not to do so. When 
the mind has attained to this attitude toward history, it 
has formed the history hahit, and is on the high road to 
success in the study of history. 

This history habit of mind is constantly to be aimed 
at by the teacher or learner in history. It, plus effort 
and perseverance, insures one success in the study of 
history against any fear of failure. 

The Emphasizing Function. — The emphasizing 
function of the organizing principle of history enables 
the teacher to distinguish between the important and 
the unimportant and to emphasize the important and to 
pass by lightly the unimportant. According to this 
function in connection with the selective and interpret- 
ing functions those events in history which manifest the 
struggle of the race for more life to a high degree; 
which an intense or long-continued spiritual struggle 
has caused ; and which affect this struggle to the largest 
degree are the most important events in history. And 
since they are the most important, they should be most 
emphasized. 

The ability of the teacher of history to select the 
essentials in his subject and emphasize them, and to 
pass by lightly the nonessentials, is a mark of a fine 
teacher. It also is a mark which is rare in teachers of 
history, geography, grammar and so on. 

Too often it is the case that the teacher teaches with 



350 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

about equal emphasis in history all which is found in 
the particular text-book he is using. 

The emphasizing function of the organizing princi- 
ple of history makes the teacher self -directive in the 
selection and emphasis of essential things in history, and 
thus makes him a better teacher of history. 

The Dividing Function. — The dividing function of 
the organizing principle of history enables the teacher 
or learner to divide history into periods or epochs. It 
is necessary to make divisions in history in order to 
systematize the study. 

History divides itself into periods on the basis of 
the predominant movement in the struggle for higher 
life. Thus for a time in the history of our country 
the predominant movement was that of discovery; then 
came the movement of the planting of local institutions ; 
next the growth of local institutions; then the growth 
toward union ; next the formation of the union, and last 
the period of national life. 

The organizing principle by enabling the student 
or teacher to see the nature of historical movements and 
growth, enables him to see these natural divisions of his- 
tory. Thus the fourth function of the organizing prin- 
ciple of history is the dividing function. 

Method in History. — It will be remembered that 
method is the triple process in the teaching act by which 
the learner is induced to take st^ps from his actual 
condition to another held up as an ideal. This notion 
applied to history gives the following: 

Method in history is the triple process in teaching 



THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF HISTORY. 351 

history by which the learner is induced to learn and 
feel the spiritual struggle of the race for higher life as 
manifested by events; as caused by events; and as caus- 
ing events, in the life of a people. 

It, too, should be remembered that there are five 
elements in the teacher's method in teaching any sub- 
ject or lesson; namely, (1) thinking the subject-matter; 
(2) thinking the purpose; (3) thinking the basis; (4) 
thinking the steps and (5) thinking the devices. Since 
this is true, the study of method in history consists of 
the study of these five things; that is, (1) the subject- 
matter of history; (2) the purpose of history; (3) the 
basis of history; (4) the steps in history; and (5) the 
devices in history. And the teacher who knows method 
in history knows these five things. 

The Forms of History. — The inherent self-urgency 
in each individual life and in the life of a whole people 
stimulates to development into what may be called his- 
torical forms. Such development is analogous to that 
of the lily or oak tree, in which force manifests itself 
according to the form inherent in the acorn or lily 
seed. Thus in the struggle of a people for higher life 
there arise certain institutional forms into, and in which 
history develops. Of these institutional forms, or in- 
stitutions, the following five are the most fundamental: 
1. The family. 2. The church. 3. The school. 4. The 
business world. 5. The state. 

The Family. — This is the most fundamental institu- 
tion of society. It, as the life of the race as a whole, 
has not always been what it now is. From a mere 



352 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

mating arrangement of a few month's duration up 
through polygyny and polyandry to the monogamous 
family, more or less stable, of the present has the fam- 
ily in its development passed. 

The controlling idea of the family is love; love be- 
tween the husband and wife, between parents and chil- 
dren, between sister and sister, brother and brother, 
and brother and sister; sexual love, paternal love, filial 
love, and fraternal love. Love was not only the origi- 
nator, but is the continuer and savior of the family. 

The contributions of the family in the education of 
the children of a people are many, one of which of the 
highest importance is obedience; obedience through 
love, if possible, but obedience without fail. This is 
one of the first hard lessons for the child, the future 
citizen, to learn. 

In tracing the threads of growth in the spiritual 
struggle of a people for higher life in studying history 
the value and interest of family life should receive just 
appreciation. Too often children learn almost nothing 
of this aspect of the struggle in studying the history of 
a people. 

The Church. — From the small degree of power, 
w^isdom, and love which man finds himself possessing he 
catches a glimpse in ideal of a being who possesses these 
characteristics in an infinite degree. What this being, 
God, would have him do is to him absolutely right, and 
only by doing this can he attain to spiritual perfection. 

The spiritual struggle for higher life working itself 



THE SUBJECT-MATTER OP HISTORY. 353 

out in this way produced the church as an institutional 
form in history. 

The controlling idea of the church is righteousness. 
This idea it attempts to carry out by bringing its mem- 
bers in right relations with God; to get them in such an 
attitude of mind and heart that they will do and love to 
do what they think their God desires them to do. 

Tracing the growth in the development of the spir- 
itual struggle in the church is a valuable part of the 
history work; both valuable and delicate. 

The School. — The young of the human species is 
actually at birth about the least prepared for living and 
caring for itself of any living creature; also, its period 
of infancy and childhood is longer than that of any 
other animal. But by growth it becomes infinitely 
more than any other living creature, and this is what 
the child lives for, and for this alone. Thus the whole 
business of the child as such is to grow. 

The school is the institution which the spiritual 
struggle of the race has produced to guide, watch and 
stimulate this growth, or development. Thus the con- 
trolling idea of the school is growth, or development. 

To trace through the spiritual struggle of the race 
as it manifested itself in the development of the school 
is an interesting and profitable part of all school work. 
It too frequently is not done at all or but poorly done. 

The Business World. — In the childhood of the race 
individuals owned very little property, but the instinct 
of ownership existed, and the development of the strug- 
gle along this line, that of ownership, has produced the 



354 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

extremely complex system of ownership and exchange 
which we know as the Business World. 

This development has reached a degree so great that 
every one of us is dependent upon others much more 
than he can at first thought appreciate. I am dependent 
upon my fellow for my house, my clothes, my convey- 
ance, my fuel, my light, much of my food and drink, 
my books, my medicines, and my professional help ; and 
he is no more independent in these things than I am. 

Thus the controlling idea of the business world is 
interdependence of man upon man. 

No history work should fail to trace out this phase 
of the struggle of the race for higher life. It is gener- 
ally not well enough done in history teaching. 

The State. — In the most primitive human life the 
principle, might makes right, has full sway. The 
stronger overcomes the weaker by the preponderance of 
physical strength and hinders his opportunity of life 
and happiness; robs him of his possessions and en- 
slaves him possibly. 

That equality of opportunity may be furnished to 
every one and that justice may be the reward of each 
one in his struggle for higher life, the state as an insti- 
tution of society came into existence. 

Thus the controlling idea of the state is justice, but 
the state carries on many other functions for the wel- 
fare of its members. 

Unlike the growth in the struggle in most of the 
institutional forms of history the struggle in the state 
has been much emphasized in school work. In fact in 



THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF HISTORY. 355 

the average text-book in history and in the average 
history class in the public schools it is almost the only 
growth traced out, if an effort be made to see growth 
and development at all. 

The state is the institution most emphasized in 
history teaching almost everywhere, notwithstanding 
that it is the part of history of least interest to children 
and least suited to their stage of development. 

To trace the development of civilization in the state 
is of great importance in history work, but it is work 
suited better to higher stages of development than that 
of the students of the primary schools. 

Other Historical Forms. — There are many other in- 
stitutions of society besides the five fundamental ones, 
which are also historical forms. These are generally 
of two classes : 1. Those which are affiliated with one 
of the five fundamental institutions. 2. Those which 
are not affiliated with any of the fundamental institu- 
tions, but which have a more distinctly separate exist- 
ence. 

Of the first class are banks, organized book com- 
panies, building and loan companies, organized manu- 
facturing companies, etc., affiliated with the business 
world; the Christian Endeavor, the Young Men's Chris- 
tian Association, etc., affiliated with the church; library 
associations, art associations, and museum associations, 
affiliated with the school. 

Of the second class are the Masons, the Knights of 
Pythias, the Oddfellows, etc. 

Threads of the historical struggle develop in such 



356 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

institutions as these but they are much less obtrusive 
than in the fundamental institutions, except occasion- 
ally. 



CHAPTER XXVI. 

THE PURPOSE OF HISTORY. 

Meaning of. — By the mastery of history as a sub- 
ject of study the learner's life will be largely changed. 
The ideas and thoughts he gets, the judging and reason- 
ing he does, the feelings he experiences and the resolu- 
tions he forms all sink into his life to some degree and 
make it both temporarily and permanently different 
from what it would otherwise have been. This is the 
effect of the study of history on the life of the learner 
and this effect when history is rightly taught is the 
purpose of history. Thus in general the purpose of his- 
tory is the change wrought in the learner's life by the 
proper pursuit of history. 

Aspects of Purpose. — In general the learner's life 
is affected in two ways by the study of history. First, 
he will acquire much knowledge valuable to him for 
guidance in right living. This is, of course, an impor- 
tant part of the purpose of history. It may appropri- 
ately be called the knowledge-giving purpose. Secondly, 
in addition to the useful knowledge the learner gets 
from the study of history, he may get right habits of 
thinking, feeling and willing. Mental exercise to the 
end of becoming an accurate and ready thinker; of 
becoming the possessor of rightly cultivated feelings; 



358 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGTY. 

and of becoming possessed of well organized habits of 
acting righteously is called mental discipline. History 
is very valuable to the learner from this point of view. 
This second purpose 6i history is called the disciplinary 
purpose. 

The Knowledge-giving Purpose. — Of the valuable 
knowledge which it is the purpose of history to give 
the following are important points : 

1. The important historical facts of the leading 
nations of the earth. 

2. The important truth that nations as well as 
individuals become what they are through a process of 
ceaseless, intense struggle and growth. 

3. The truth that national and individual igno- 
rance and prejudice have always brought pain, misery 
and sorrow to the children of men. 

4. The truth that knowledge and openness to truth 
and conviction have always in the broad sweep of human 
affairs brought happiness ultimately to the children of 
men. 

5. The truth that there are in the affairs of men 
and nations a seed-time, a period of growth and a 
fruitage; that they must sow if they would reap and 
that in general they are likely to reap what they sow. 

6. The truth that the race has been guided in its 
struggle for higher life not much less frequently by 
myth, superstition and error than by truth. 

The Disciplinary Purpose. — Of the disciplinary 
purpose of the study of history the following are im- 
portant points: 



THE PURPOSE OF HISTORY. 359 

1. It cultivates the kind of reasoning one must 
use most in life. 

2. It cultivates the moral judgment to an extent 
probably not done by any other school subject. 

3. It cultivates both the reproductive and the 
creative imagination. 

4. It cultivates memory in the way which is the 
most helpful. 

5. It fosters the spirit of free inquiry and free 
investigation; that is, the scientific spirit. 

6. It broadens the learner's sympathies, develops 
tolerance and produces the spirit of charity; that is, it 
socializes the learner. 

Historical Facts of Leading Nations. — That it is 
the purpose of history to give the learner the historical 
facts of the leading nations of the earth seems evident. 
Life demands that the learner shall know pretty well 
what the race has done in its struggle for higher life. 
Such knowledge is of immense value to one in every 
aspect of life. It enables one to order his own life so 
much better physically, intellectually, aesthetically, so- 
cially, morally, and religiously. No one can rightly 
claim to be educated who is ignorant of the achievements 
of the race in its zigzag march upward. Such knowl- 
edge is entirely necessary for broadness of intellectual 
outlook, for the enlargement of one's mental horizon. 
But the field is so broad that only the leading nations 
of the earth can be studied in a lifetime. There would 
no doubt come value from the study of the history of 
all the nations of the earth, but those which have contrib- 



360 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

uted largely to the stream of civilization furnish the 
large values. Also, more worth is found in an intensive 
knowledge of the nations which have poured bountifully 
into the current of civilization than in a superficial 
knowledge of all the nations of the earth. 

Therefore, just the important historical facts of the 
leading nations of the earth are to be aimed at. Life 
is too short for more. 

The Ceaseless Struggle. — History is the subject pre- 
eminent to teach the learner that all life is a struggle; 
that this is a truth of individual life and also a truth 
of national life. In the individual life there is the 
struggle for food, the incessant, imperative struggle of 
all living beings; a struggle that begins at birth and 
ends only with death ; a struggle intensive to the degree 
that at times all other struggles wane before it. It is 
the bread-and-butter problem of the ages. 

There is his struggle against the cold, against the 
heat, against the flood, against the lightning, against 
fire and against the storm. 

There is the struggle against disease, tuberculosis, 
pneumonia, diphtheria, malaria, etc. 

There is the struggle against enemies, insects, rep- 
tiles, other animals, poisonous plants and against one's 
fellow-man. 

History better than any other subject makes real 
to the learner that life is a struggle. 

In the life of the race all the aspects of the strug- 
gle exist just as truly as they exist in the life of the 
individual. 



THE PURPOSE OP HISTORY. 361 

But out of all this struggle comes growth. There 
are periods in history when a nation not only does not 
seem to be growing, but actually seems to be losing to 
some degree what it has already attained. It, however, 
recovers and is found to have gained strength in some 
way from the time of adversity. Growth usually runs 
a zigzag course. 

Results of Ignorance and Prejudice. — In the world's 
history there are many instances of the pain, misery and 
sorrow which result from ignorance and prejudice. In 
the United States notorious examples of it were the 
Salem Witchcraft, a result of the most shameless and 
appalling ignorance; and the persecution of the Quak- 
ers, a hideous instance of religious prejudice. 

Many illustrations of it may be found in the lives 
of individuals in history, too, as well as in the life of 
a whole people. 

Much of the misery of the Civil War in the United 
States could have been avoided, had the people of the 
two sections known each other better. 

Lives have been lost by thousands, homes broken 
up, the innocent tortured and subjected to every misery 
and humiliation which the demoniacal ingenuity of the 
prejudiced and ignorant could invent. And all this 
because of ignorance and prejudice. 

To have the learner to see this truth clearly, and 
feel it, too, is certainly a part of the purpose of history. 

Knowledge and Openness to Conviction. — Knowl- 
edge had its genesis in the demand for better living, and 
in the long struggle of human development knowledge 



362 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

has pointed the way to higher life and away from the 
lower. Ejiowledge has as its whole purpose to guide the 
human race to happiness. 

Knowledge has liberated the human race from the 
bondage of superstition. Knowledge has tunnelled 
mountains, bridged rivers and spanned continents. 
Knowledge has harnessed waterfalls. Knowledge has 
utilized the phenomena of lightning to minister to man's 
wants. Knowledge prevents plagues, stamps out dis- 
eases, and makes the desert bloom like the rose. 
Knowledge has largely enfranchised the human race 
physically, intellectually, aesthetically, socially, morally, 
and religiously. And these are the things which bring 
happiness to the children of men. 

The full meed of knowledge can come only from 
openness to truth and conviction. Any other attitude 
of mind not only hinders and stunts the development of 
knowledge but misguides its possessor. 

Only openness to truth and conviction contribute 
to happiness. 

A Seed-time and a Harvest. — The evil and good 
that come to men and nations are not accidental, but are 
the results of perfectly natural causes. The historical 
evidence of this truth is to be found in abundance in 
the lives of both individual men and nations. Good in- 
stances in the lives of individual men are the lives of 
Benedict Arnold and Aaron Burr on one hand, and 
the lives of George Washington and Abraham Lincoln 
on the other. Good instances of it in the lives of nations 
were England's colonial policy resulting in the loss of 



THE PURPOSE OF HISTORY. 363 

her American colonies, and the physical, intellectual and 
moral impoverishment of Spain through the Spanish in- 
quisiton. 

Guidance of Truth and Error. — In the struggle of 
the race for higher life truth has, of course, guided. 
But error has also guided, and almost as often as truth. 

The Greeks believed that their gods were immortal 
beings possessed of human passions and frailties, and 
that they were constantly taking part in the affairs of 
men and women. Zeus, or Jupiter, was the father of 
gods and men and Juno was his wife. Pallas, or Min- 
erva, was the goddess of wisdom ; Venus, the goddess of 
love, and so on. They dwelt on Blount Olympus ; they 
had their prejudices, loved, quarreled, and were miser- 
able and happy after the fashion of human beings. 

How far these myths and errors influenced the 
lives of the Greek people only the careful student of 
Greek life can to any very large degree appreciate. 

The Crusades were guided almost wholly by error 
and superstition. 

In our own country the Salem Witchcraft and the 
persecution of the Quakers, and many other religious 
and moral movements are instances of events which were 
guided by error and superstition. 

Cidtivation of Reasoning. — One needs to reason 
only that he may live better. And each civilized person 
naturally must live in society. So the reasoning which 
helps one most to live in society will be the most useful 
kind of reasoning. Such reasoning is the kind which 
deals with the vicissitudes of human life both individ- 



364 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

ually and in groups; the kind of reasoning which has 
to do with the desires, the passions, the sorrows, the joys, 
the hopes, the aspirations, the disappointments, the 
triumphs and failures of men and women in the proba- 
ble and complex endeavor of human life individually 
and institutionally. 

To be able to take an event in history and to trace 
it out in both its cause and effect relation proximately 
and ultimately requires a higher degree of reasoning in 
human probabilities than can ever be attained by any 
amount of study of methematics. » 

History rightly studied is a more valuable study to 
cultivate reasoning for the majority of students in the 
schools of the present by far than any branch of mathe- 
matics, the popular opinion to the contrary, notwith- 
standing. 

Cultivation of Moral Judgment. — Early in the 
child's life he has no actual moral judgment, only the 
power to acquire one. This possibility will develop only 
by his exercising it in judging the right and wrong in 
human action, and by his being led to approve of the 
right and to condemn the wrong. 

There is no other subject in the school curriculum 
which furnishes such large opportunity to exercise the 
learner in doing these things, forming judgments of the 
right and wrong in human action, approving of the 
right and condemning the wrong, as does history. 

The cultivation of the learner's moral judgment is 
thus a large purpose of history in the school curriculum. 

Cultivation of Imagination. — Imagination is the 



THE PURPOSE OP HISTORY. 365 

mind's power of embodying ideas in particular forms, 
or images. If the image corresponds very nearly with 
some actually existing thing which the mind has known, 
the imagination is the reproductive kind; but if the 
mind adapts, or fashions, images and builds up complex 
images from them, the imagination is the creative kind. 

In picturing the historical events in their setting 
about which the learner has been studying in his his- 
tory work the reproductive imagination is exercised 
largely. This kind of imagination is used to a very 
large degree in history study. 

In looking forward to events which would have 
resulted from various historical contingencies the free 
play of the creative imagination is called into exercise 
largely. For instance, if the learner pictures the condi- 
tions which might have existed in America, if the French 
instead of the English had triumphed in the French 
and Indian War, he uses his creative imagination. There 
is almost as much opportunity for exercise of the 
creative imagination in the study of history as for exer- 
cise of the reproductive imagination. 

In educational councils history is usually ranked 
next to geography as a subject good for the cultivation 
of imagination. Geography is usually given first place 
as an imaginative subject of those in the primary school 
course. 

The Cultivation of Memory. — The cultivation of 
memory consists wholly of building up systems of asso- 
ciation, and there is no such thing as cultivating mem- 
ory i7i general by studying any one subject. Nor is it 



366 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

true that all exercise of the memory is a benefit to the 
mind. Remembering by mere repetition or by intense 
application may be more harmful than beneficial to the 
mind. 

But history may be taught so as to cultivate memory 
in the most helpful way. An examination of the way 
in which one remembers will show that one can remem- 
ber a thing only because it has been associated with 
some other known thing. So the cultivation of memory 
consists in associating the unknown with what is already 
known. 

History may and should be taught so that the 
learner may see each event in history as an instance of 
the organizing principle of history, and thus associate 
it with this organizing principle. 

The proper cultivation of memory in history con- 
sists of two things : 1. Firmly fixing in the mind of the 
learner the organizing principle of history. 2. Teach- 
ing the learner to see that each event in history is an 
instance of this organizing principle. 

If history be studied in this way, it will prove an 
excellent subject to cultivate memory. 

The Scientific Spirit. — The scientific spirit is the 
spirit of free inquiry and free investigation. History 
furnishes most excellent opportunities for leading the 
learner to be an honest searcher for truth; for leading 
him to see that he must lay down prejudice, must give 
up pet theories, must feel free to inquire for, and inves- 
tigate all truth and all that passes for truth. No other 
subject in the school curriculum shows so well the neces- 



THE PURPOSE OF HISTORY. 367 

sity of a mind open to receive, to welcome, to utilize and 
to enjoy the unadorned truth ; a willingness to know, to 
listen and be convinced ; a spirit of candor and honesty 
of intellect ; a hate for the immorality of the intellect 
which withholds, distorts, minimizes, or refuses to accept 
the truth. Such a mind is a mind possessed of the 
scientific spirit. 

Socializing the Learner. — To socialize the learner is 
to prepare him to live well in the society of his fellows. 

The learner is naturally selfish, unsympathetic, un- 
charitable and intolerant. It is a part of the purpose 
of historical study to tone down this selfishness, to make 
the learner sympathetic, charitable and tolerant. 

The instances in history of selfishness, lack of sym- 
pathy, lack of charity, and intolerance are many, and 
the learner may be led to condemn them and to ap- 
prove of the opposite so frequently that a socializing 
effect will be wrought in his life. 

"The student who has followed the historic stream 
from its early springs down to the present time, and 
observed the order of its flowing, will be full of the 
lessons of order, courage, patience, self-sacrifice, patriot- 
ism and liberty which it has taught; the past will no 
longer be a dead past, but a living present, ceaselessly 
streaming forwardf determining the life of the future/' 
— Kemp. 



CHAPTER XXVII. 

BASIS IN HISTORY. 

Meaning of Basis. — It is to be remembered that 
basis in any subject is just those points of knowledge 
which the learner has when he comes to school upon 
which the teacher can build in teaching that subject; 
also, that the educational principle underlying basis 
in teaching is the following: The mind in learning 
naturally goes to the unknown from the nearest related 
know7i. The basis in history is the known which is most 
closely related to the unknown to be taught. 

Aspects of Basis in History. — In history the child 
is to learn about folks; about their struggles for more 
life; about their hopes, aspirations, sympathies, antip- 
athies, joys, sorrows, successes, failures, victories, de- 
feats, triumphs, passions, etc. But these aspects of 
human life manifest themselves in institutional forms, 
the chief of which are the family, the church, the school, 
business life, and the state. The average child when 
he comes to school at the age of six knows something 
about each of these institutions of society, and this 
knowledge is his basis for beginning the study of his- 
tory. Thus there are at any rate five aspects of the 
learner's basis for history. 

1. His knowledge of the family. 

2. His knowledge of the church. 



BASIS IN HISTORY. 369 

3. His knowledge of the school. 

4. His knowledge of business. 

5. His knowledge of the state. 

The Learner's Knowledge of the Family. — Some of 
the child's knowledge of the family is vague and some 
is definite. It, of course, is made up of bits and frag- 
ments of truth, but along with this truth will be found 
error and myth. 

He will know that the family is made up of father, 
mother and children; that father works for mother, 
that mother works for father and that both work for 
the children; that the members of the family are more 
closely connected with each other than those who are not 
members of one family. He will know something of 
birthdays and possibly something of marriage. He will 
know something of the family habits concerning food, 
clothing, sleep, meeting, separating, the spending of 
evenings, Sundays, and week days. He will know some- 
thing of the furniture the family uses, the food eaten, 
the stove, lamps, chairs, carpets or rugs, books, pictures, 
musical instruments, tables, chairs, bureaus, beds, etc. ; 
also, something of the family amusements, what the 
children play, what the parents play, walks, drives, etc. 

All of this knowledge constitutes the learner's basis 
for studying the struggle in a people's life in the insti- 
tution, the family. 

The Learner's Knowledge of the Church. — The 
learner's idea of the church when he comes to school at 
the age of six is complex, consisting of truth, error and 
superstition, as a rule. 



370 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

He has some idea of God, probably that God is 
a great, kind, benevolent, fatherly man — some idea of 
Christ as the son of God ; some idea of Satan, the Holy 
Spirit, heaven, hell and angels. He knows there is a 
preacher, something of prayer, religious hymns, the sac- 
rament, the Sunday School, the scripture, and some 
ideas of religious duties. 

On these ideas as a basis is the history of the re- 
ligious struggle of a people to be founded. 

The Learner's Knowledge of the School. — Before 
entering the school the child's knowledge of school is 
pretty vague. But he may have been to kindergarten, 
and in that case he knows something of what the school 
is like. 

He is likely to know there is a place called school 
to which children go and where they learn to read and 
write. He knows something of books and that they are 
in some way connected with the school. He has heard 
people read and he has seen them write. He has heard 
of a teacher in connection with the boys and girls of 
the school. 

These ideas, usually rather vague, constitute the 
basis for the history of the struggle of the race in the 
school. 

The Learner's Knowledge of Business. — It is this 
aspect of the learner's basis for history which is usually 
the most definite and elaborate. 

He has ideas of money, probably having bought 
something, and in many cases having saved some pen- 
nies. He knows something of railroads, cars, automo- 



BASIS IN HISTORY. 371 

biles, bicycles, wagons, horses, and possibly steamboats; 
also, something of lumber, brick, stone, iron, wood, coal, 
meats, milk and butter. He knows something of leather, 
coats, dresses, trousers, boots, shoes, hats, caps, and so 
on ; also, something of sugar, coffee, tea, bread, bananas, 
oranges, apples, berries and other fruits. He knows 
something of the occupations of his parents and neigh- 
bors. He knows that food, clothing and other commod- 
ities are to be had largely from other persons than his 
parents by exchange, and that many of them are pro- 
duced in other places than places near his home. He 
also knows that many of them must go through a 
process of preparation before they can be used. That 
is to say, he knows something of the pi^oduction, prep- 
aration and distrihutio7i of material wealth. 

This knowledge is the learner's basis for tracing 
out the business struggle of a people for higher life. 

The Learner's Knoiuledge of the State. — The child 
who comes to school at the age of six has some ideas of 
the state, but like some of his other ideas, they are very 
indefinite. 

He has heard of some of the officers of the state, the 
police, sheriff, constable, judge, something of holidays. 
Thanksgiving, Fourth of July, Christmas, etc. He has 
in some instances heard of the courthouse, jail and peni- 
tentiary. 

Doubtless his ideas of the significance of all these 
are pretty hazy, but they constitute the basis which 
the learner brings to school for tracing the struggle in 
the institution, the state. 



372 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

A review of what the average child has for basis 
to begin the study of history when he comes to school 
at the age of six shows that he is in possession of an 
ample basis, broad enough in extent and comprehensive 
enough in intent. Thus if the learner is not started in 
history in the first year of his school life, a lack of 
basis can not be given as a justifiable reason. 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 

STEPS IN HISTORY. 

Meaning of Steps. — It is to be remembered that 
steps in teaching are mental things and are in the mind 
of the learner. There are many separate things to be 
got in learning history and the mental activities corre- 
sponding to these separate things respectively are the 
steps in history. Thus the mentality corresponding to 
the Kansas-Nebraska Bill is one large step in history, 
and so is the mentality corresponding to any other point 
in history a step. 

Classes of Steps. — There are those steps which are 
arranged in the order of time, the chronological steps. 

Thus, if one seeks what points should be taught in 
history first, secondly, thirdly, and so on throughout 
the first year, the second year, the third year, etc., 
through the school course, he seeks the chronological 
steps in history. 

But if one seeks what one must learn as the ele- 
ments of all history regardless of any specific time, he 
seeks the logical steps in history. 

The Logical Steps in History. — These are the move- 
ments of the mind in the mastery of those elements 
which make up the history of any people; that is, the 
common elements of the history of a people. They are 
as follows: 



374 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

1. The advance of the learner's mind in learning 
the events of history. 

2. The advance in the learner's mind in learning 
the spiritual struggle in the life of a people. 

3. The advance of the learner's mind in seeing the 
events as the manifestation of the spiritual struggle in 
the life of a people. 

4. The advance of the learner's mind in seeing 
the events as the cause of the spiritual struggle in the 
life of a people. 

5. The advance of the learner's mind in seeing 
the events as the effect of the spiritual struggle in the 
life of a people. 

Any one who knows these five things in the life of 
a people, knows the history of that people. Thus these 
five things are in general the five logical steps in the 
mastery of the history of any people. 

The Chronological Steps in History. — These are the 
steps in the order of time. That is to say, the steps in 
succession throughout the history work of the learner in 
school. 

The most important problem concerning the chron- 
ological steps in history is the best order of taking 
them. The question is, What is best to do first, secondly, 
thirdly, and so on in teaching history? Here is a vast 
lot of historical material, and the problem is the best 
order in which to teach the separate points. 

There are in general two orders of steps proposed 
by educators and teachers, as follows: 

1. There is the order of beginning back with the 



STEPS IN HISTORY. 375 

infancy of the race and tracing the race's development 
down to the present time. According to this order the 
learner is led to study in general the Aryans, first; 
next, the Persians and Hebrews ; next, the Greeks ; next, 
the Romans; next, the Saxons; then, the English; and 
lastly, the Americans and other modern nations. This 
order is intended to enable the learner to trace out the 
stream of civilization from its source down to the present 
time as it appears in the white race. 

2. There is the order which begins nearer home in 
both time and place, and reaches forward and backward 
from this starting point. This order of steps is not 
uniformly taken in different places in the schools of the 
United States, and it quite generally lacks organization. 
The following from a Uniform Course of Study for one 
of the Central states will illustrate: 

* * FIRST YEAR. 

First Part. — Primitive Life (Indian Stories). 
Second Part. — Pioneer Life. 

SECOND YEAR. 

First Part. — Great Americans. 
Second Part. — Norse Life. 
Third Part. — Norse Life. 

THIRD YEAR. 

First Part. — Hebrew Life. 
Second Part. — Greek Life. 
Third Part. — Great Greeks. 



376 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

FOURTH YEAR. 

Stories from Roman History, using 'The City of 
the Seven Hills.' 

FIFTH YEAR. 

Gordy's 'American Leaders and Heroes.' 
First Part. — The Period of Discovery, Exploration 
and Settlement. 

Second Part. — The French War and the Revolution. 
Third Part. — Expansion, Inventions and Slavery. 

SIXTH YEAR. 

Mowry's 'First Steps in the History of England.' 

SEVENTH YEAR. 

United States History. 

EIGHTH YEAR. 

The eighth year history should cover the period of 
National History to the present time." 

It is to be observed that according to the second 
order of taking the steps there is a good deal of brows- 
ing around over the historical field. In fact, the chief 
characteristic of the second order of the chronological 
steps in history seems to be the freedom which it gives 
to browse. 

The First Order. — According to this order the 
learner is led to see that the history of a people is a 
stream, starting at its source a tiny streamlet but in- 
creasing in width and depth as tributary after tribu- 
tary flows into it till it surges a mighty river. The 



STEPS IN HISTORY. 377 

Persians, the Hebrews, the Greeks, the Romans, the 
Saxons, the English and the Americans are seen one by 
one to pour their contributions into this stream of civili- 
zation as it widens and deepens in the life of the race. 

First, Aryan life, by grouping the work around 
some Aryan child, is studied; then Persian and Hebrew 
life, by grouping the work around Persian and Hebrew 
children ; and so on with Greek, Roman, Saxon, English 
and American life. Their family life, church life, school 
life, business life and state life are studied, the events 
from the first having placed upon them an historical 
interpretation in a small way. As the children advance 
in their work they will be led more and more to place 
a truly historical interpretation upon the facts which 
they learn. In this way they begin to grow little by 
little into the history habit of mind. 

For instance, in the study of Aryan life, the work 
is usually grouped around the Aryan boy, Kablu. 
Around this little boy's life cling those things of the 
home which are taught to the children; things about 
the religion, about the education, about business and 
about government in so far as there was any. 

This work is given orally by the teacher at the first 
lesson ; then the children talk about it in a second lesson, 
and a little higher in the course they may be led to 
write about it. Thus the work may be made to cor- 
relate with primary language lessons, spelling, writing 
and reading lessons. 

This work would be based upon some book or books 
dealing with the life of these peoples. The book most 



378 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

widely used for this work is one called ''Ten Boys 
Who Lived on the Road from Long- Ago till Now." 
It traces the civilization of these peoples by grouping 
it around child life. 

The Second Order. — According to this order the 
topics as previously indicated in the first year; that is, 
stories of Indian life and pioneer stories, are taught to 
the children. The work is oral in the main. It is made 
to correlate with primary language, and possibly with 
reading, writing and spelling. The work of the other 
years is done in a very similar way to that of the first 
year till a place is reached where the text-book can be 
put into the hands of the learner. After that the his- 
tory work is based upon the text-book. 

Work hy Years. — The work for the first year is as 
follows : 

1. The study of Aryan civilization grouping the 
work around child life. The work is almost wholly oral 
and is to correlate with primary language, reading, 
spelling and possibly writing, 

— or — 

2. Stories of Indian children and pioneer life. 
The work is almost wholly oral and is made to correlate 
with primary language, reading, spelling and possibly 
writing. 

The work of the second year is as follows: 
1. The study of Persian and Hebrew civilization 
grouped around child life. The work is largely oral 
and is correlated with language lessons, reading, spell- 
ing and writing, 



STEPS IN HISTORY. 379 

or 

2. Pioneer life and Great Americans. The work 
is largely oral and is correlated with language lessons, 
spelling, reading and writing. 

The work of the third year is as follows : 

1. The study of Greek civilization grouped around 
child life. The work is largely oral and is correlated 
with primary language lessons, reading, spelling and 
writing, 

or 

2. American biographical and historical stories. 
The work is oral in the main and is correlated with pri- 
mary language, reading, writing and spelling. 

The work of the fourth year is as follows: 

1. The study of Roman civilization grouped 
around child life. The work should still be mainly oral 
and is correlated with primary language, reading, spell- 
ing and writing, 

or 

2. Stories of the settlements and colonial life in 
America. The work should be mainly oral, and is cor- 
related with primary language, reading, spelling and 
writing. 

The work of the fifth year is as follows : 

1. The study of Saxon and early English civiliza- 
tion grouped around child life. The work should yet be 
largely oral, and is correlated with primary language 
lessons, reading, spelling and writing, 

or 

2. '^ American Leaders and Heroes," by Gordy. 



380 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

The text-book is to be placed in the hands of the chil- 
dren. 

The work of the sixth year is as follows: 

"First Steps in History of England/' by Mowry. 

The text-book is placed in the hands of the learner. 
The work of the seventh year is as follows: 
The History of the United States up to the adoption 

of the Constitution. 

The work of the eighth year is as follows : 

The history of the United States from the adoption 

of the Constitution to the present time. 

Comparison of the Two Orders of Steps. — It is evi- 
dent that there are some marked differences in the 
character of these two orders of chronological steps. 
To designate them in the discussion the first may be 
called the development order, and the other, the promis- 
cuous order. The following compares them: 

1. The development order is systematic and well 
organized; the promiscuous order is unsystematic and 
poorly organized. 

2. The development order is in harmony with the 
nature of history; that is, that history is an evolution 
in the life of a people. The promiscuous order is not 
in harmony with the nature of history. 

3. The development order leads rapidly toward the 
formation of the history habit; the promiscuous order, 
slowly, if at all. 

4. The development order is based upon the 
thought that the child in his growth and development 



STEPS IN HISTORY. 381 

repeats the history of the race; the promiscuous order 
does not recognize this thought. 

5. The development order makes the work easier 
to remember than the promiscuous order because it 
observes a natural sequence of events. 

6. The promiscuous order is probably easier for 
poorly qualified teachers. 

Oral Teaching. — In oral teaching in history the 
teacher, first, places the lesson before the class in story 
form as interesting and entertaining as possible; 
secondly, she, by questions, has the children reproduce 
it orally; then, if the stage of development of the chil- 
dren warrant it, it may be reproduced in a written 
language lesson. As the work progresses, frequent oral 
reviews must be given to fix the work in mind. 

The first few years of history work must of neces- 
sity be presented orally. The children in these years 
can not read history. Their development is not suffi- 
cient for them to do so. 

The following difficulties in presenting the work 
orally can be overcome by most teachers: 

1. It is difficult for most teachers to tell a story 
well. 

2. In oral teaching close attention of all the mem- 
bers of the class is sometimes difficult to maintain. 

3. It is difficult to get teachers to organize each 
lesson into topics. The tendency is to ramble. 

4. Teachers do not know history well enough and 
often do not have material at hand for proper prepara- 
tion. 



382 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

5. In many schools teachers do not think they 
have time for oral lessons. 

Almost any earnest teacher, though, can see her 
way through these difficulties in oral teaching in his- 
tory. 



CHAPTER XXIX. 

DEVICES IN HISTORY TEACHING. 

Meaning and Importance of. — Devices, it will be 
remembered, are the external means used by the teacher 
and learner in the teaching act. The manipulation of 
these constitutes the physical method in teaching. 

They are important in teaching any school subject, 
because the growth in the learner's life depends upon 
the experiences he has, and the experiences he has de- 
pends upon the means used to arouse these experiences. 

Enumeratioyi of. — The following are a list of im- 
portant devices in teaching history: 1. Assignments. 
2. Class discussions. 3. Text-books. 4. Maps. 5. Public 
documents. 6. Pictures. 7. Reference books. 8. Out- 
lines. 

Assignments. — It is difficult to tell whether assign- 
ments or class discussions are the more important de- 
vices in teaching history. They seem to be of almost 
equal importance. But good history teaching can not 
exist when the assignments are poor. Good assign- 
ments in history must possess the following character- 
istics : 

1. They must be pointed, specific and definite. 

2. They must lead the learner to acquire the right 
concept of history. 



384 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

3. They must tend toward the formation of the 
history habit. 

4. They must emphasize the important and pass 
by more quickly the unimportant. 

History assignments should, as a rule, be written, 
if the best results are to be hoped for. The teacher 
who constantly gives studied, thoughtful, definite writ- 
ten assignments in history is almost sure to secure very 
satisfactory results. 

Class Discussions. — This device of almost equal 
importance with assignments may be used very effec- 
tively by the teacher in teaching history. The teacher's 
greatest tact and skill will manifest themselves in the 
way he directs class discussions. 

The teacher in his class discussions has opportunity 
to do the following things for the learner in history : 

1. To test him on his understanding and prepara- 
tion of the lesson. 

2. To supplement the knowledge of the lesson 
which the learner has gained in its preparation. 

3. To give the learner right habits of studying 
history. 

4. To approve, stimulate, encourage and inspire 
him in his work. 

The teacher who uses the opportunity to do these 
things by class discussions makes them a very important 
device in teaching history. 

Text-hooks. — One might possibly be able to teach 
history without a text-book in the hands of the learner, 
and should do so of course in the lower stages of the 



DEVICES IN HISTORY TEACHING. 385 

work, but in the higher stages of the work the book is 
needed. A good text-book is a great convenience for 
both teacher and learner. 

Text-books in history, though, are not the history; 
they are relegated to their proper position of impor- 
tance when they are considered a mere device. 

The text-book in history should not trace the strug- 
gle of a people merely in one institution, the state, but 
in all institutions; in the family, in the church, in the 
school, in business and in the state. 

Maps. — Maps are a useful device in teaching his- 
tory and should be used much more than they generally 
are. They make clear the position of coast lines, moun- 
tains, rivers, boundary lines, cities, plains, passes, roads, 
canals, and other relief forms that affect the history of 
the people. 

A good history teacher will find much use for good 
maps in his work. 

Public Documents. — Public documents are a valu- 
able device in all research work in history. The student 
of history who wants to study any subject in history 
intensively studies public documents most carefully. 
For instance, any one who wants to make an intensive 
study of our pension system, or the waste of war, 
would find almost all the means of research in public 
documents. 

Thus in the higher phases of history study public 
documents are an important device. 

Pictures. — Every one likes pictures of important 
historical scenes, huildifigs, and events. They are liked 



386 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

especially by children, of course, and thus are a means 
in the hands of the teacher to arouse interest and to 
stimulate to study in history. Most of us can remem- 
ber, perhaps, that we have wanted to know more about 
things in history of which we first learned by pictures. 

They also make history work more vivid, and im- 
pressive, and thus enhance the opportunity of remem- 
bering accurately. 

Reference Books. — The text-book and the teacher's 
work in history study should be supplemented by a good 
reference library in history. No large knowledge of his- 
tory can usually be attained to from the teacher and 
text-book merely. To catch the historical spirit, to have 
a broad historical horizon one must read widely in his- 
tory. 

The good history teacher always wants a good 
reference library and wants his students to make free 
use of it. 

Outlines. — Outlines are valuable organizers in his- 
tory teaching. But many teachers in teaching history 
fail to use the outline to its full worth. The historical 
outline is of some help in teaching history, if made by 
the teacher, but of very much more help if made by the 
learner. Thus to get most good from the outline in 
history the learner should be led to make it for him- 
self. 

The value of outlines in history teaching lies in 
their help in systematizing the work and thus enabling 
the learner to see it as an organized whole. But that 



DEVICES IN HISTORY TEACHING. 387 

the outline may do this most helpfully it must be made 
by the learner, not by the teacher. 

Other Devices. — There are other devices in teaching 
history than those studied above. It is meant here that 
the ones studied above are only some of the most im- 
portant ones. 



CHAPTER XXX. 

ERRORS IN TEACHING HISTORY. 

Prevalence of. — There are a great many errors 
made in teaching history as it is usually done in our 
schools. And there are at any rate two reasons why 
this is the case : 

1. Contrary to popular opinion, history is a sub- 
ject difficult to teach well. 

2. Many teachers have little more than the 
vaguest ideas of the true nature of history. 

Enumeration of. — The following are common errors 
in teaching history: 

1. Teaching history as a record of events. 

2. Teaching events as isolated to too large an 
extent. 

3. Failure to interpret events. 

4. Failure to differentiate the important from the 
unimportant. 

5. Tracing struggle only in the state. 

6. Bad order of steps. 

History as a Record of Events. — There are many 
teachers yet who regard history as the record of events 
and teach it as such. Such teaching necessarily degen- 
erates into a verbal memory drill. The spirit of history 
is likely to be entirely lost in the effort required to re- 
member the form of the record. History so taught loses 



ERRORS IN TEACHING HISTORY. 389 

its human interest, is most difficult to remember, fails to 
develop the moral judgment, and the accurate reason- 
ing resulting from the proper history study. 

It gives the learner the wrong idea of what history 
is, underestimates its educational worth, and, in many 
cases, gives the learner a permanent dislike for history 
as a subject. 

No teacher, be he who he may, who regards history 
as merely a record of events can teach history well. 

Teaching Events as Isolated. — Every event in his- 
tory has its roots deeply buried in the past and pro- 
jects its influence far into the future. Only when the 
movements in history which have led up to the event 
are understood can any event be understood. Move- 
ments can be grasped and comprehended by children as 
can any series of connected changes, and any event will 
be placed naturally in the series. But to teach the 
event as isolated is to fail to give it the connections 
in the mind of the learner which would enable him to 
fix it in mind. To remember events in history isolated 
to any large degree one must depend upon intense ap- 
plication and numerous repetitions. But to rely upon 
these ways of remembering is injurious to the judg- 
ment and reasoning in history. 

The evolution of a people toward higher life can 
never be seen by studying events as isolated. Only 
when events in their relations are traced out can the 
growth of people in civilization be seen. 

Failure to Interpret Events. — It is a most common 
error for the teacher to fail to lead the learner to inter- 



390 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

pret events in history. An event in history is inter- 
preted only when it is traced out in its historical rela- 
tions. These are the relations of the event to the spirit- 
ual and physical growth of the people in their struggle 
for higher life. The event must be seen to be the effect 
of the struggle in the life of the people in the past, 
both spiritual and physical ; it must be seen to be a cause 
of the struggle in the life of the people, both spiritual 
and physical; and in all cases it must be seen to mani- 
fest what is in the spiritual life of the people. 

Unless this is done in history the learner is never 
likely to catch the spirit of history, enjoy it, and be a 
real student of history. That is, he is never likely to 
get the historic attitude of mind — the history habit. 

In the lower grades of the work this can be done 
only in a small way, but as the learner advances in 
development, he should be led more and more into the 
habit of placing a strictly historical interpretation upon 
historical facts. Too often in history facts are taught 
as mere facts to be learned and stowed away in the 
memory. 

Lack of Differentiation of Important and Unim- 
portant. — It is evident that not all events are of equal 
historical importance, but it is not uncommon for the 
teacher of history to teach, with about equal emphasis, 
everything he comes upon in the text-book which he 
happens to be using. It requires a good knowledge of 
a subject to be able to distinguish between the important 
and the unimportant in teaching, and this is especially 
true of history. Certain events in history are mile- 



ERRORS IN TEACHING HISTORY. 391 

stones which mark important places in the evolution of 
the life of a people. These must be seen to be so im- 
portant that nothing is to be left undone to fix them 
firmly in the life of the learner. 

They also become instruments of thought in his- 
tory study by means of which history may be inter- 
preted. It is upon these important events in history 
that the stress should be placed. 

To emphasize all equally in history is, first, to 
waste time and energy; secondly, to give the wrong 
attitude of mind toward history. 

Tracing Struggle only in State. — In almost all text- 
books in history the struggle of a people for higher life 
is traced out very much in only one of the institutions 
of civilization, the state. And since most teachers of 
history are guided by the text-book in teaching, the 
learner is usually led to trace the struggle in only one 
institution, the state, if he be led to trace it at all. 
This is, of course, an important part of the history 
work, but no student will ever catch the spirit of history 
or become proficient in history by studying merely the 
development of the state. 

The Ordinance of 1787, the Omnibus Bill, and the 
Dred Scott Decision are of great interest to the ad- 
vanced student of history, but not so to the elementary 
student of history. In teaching the events in the evo- 
lution of the state in history the teacher is usually 
teaching the most uninteresting part of history to the 
average elementary history student. What occurred in 
the family life, in the schools, in the church, and in 



392 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

business life, in the evolution of a people's civilization 
appeals to the boy and girl in history in a much greater 
degree than what occurred in the state as an institu- 
tion. Thus the most interesting parts of history to boys 
and girls are frequently omitted from history teaching 
while they are being drilled upon the dry events of the 
state. 

To trace the development in the state alone does 
the following undesirable things: 1. It takes much of 
the interest out of history. 2. It frequently gives the 
learner a permanent dislike for history. 3. It gives an 
erroneous notion of what history actually is. 

Bad Order of Steps. — The order of development in 
studying anything is always the most natural and most 
economical. For this reason the order of development 
should be followed in teaching history. The order of 
development in history is from the simple to the com- 
plex, from the childhood of a people to its maturity. 

To begin the learner with the history of the United 
States in the Period of Voyage and Discovery is to 
begin in the middle of the life of various peoples, and 
is not best. Surely, in the best history teaching the 
learner must be led in general at any rate up through 
Aryan, Greek, Roman, Spanish, French and English 
history to the history of the United States. This in 
most cases is not done as history is usually taught. But 
the need of it is very great. 



CHAPTER XXXI. 

NATURE AND SUBJECT-MATTER OP GEOGRAPHY. 

Nature of. — The idea which the teacher holds of the 
nature of any subject will determine to a large degree 
how he will teach that subject. While this is true of all 
school subjects, it is true to a larger degree with respect 
to the subject of geography than with most other sub- 
jects. For instance, if the teacher believe that geography 
is not a separate science of itself, but a conglomeration 
of fragments of sciences, of botany, of zoology, of geol- 
ogy, of astronomy, etc., he is almost certain to teach it 
in an unsystematic, unorganized way. But if he believe 
that it is a separate, dignified science, he is likely to 
teach it in a systematized, organized way. 

Views of Geography. — There are to be found in the 
minds of people engaged in school work three rather 
definite views of what geography is, as follows: 

1. There is, first, what may be called the popular y 
or unscientific, view. 

2. There is, secondly, the view that geography is 
the study of the earth as the home of man. This may be 
called the anthropological view. 

3. And lastly there is the view that geography is, 
in short, the science of distributions. This may be 
called the scientific view. 



394 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

This question may be studied in two ways: first, 
it may be studied by finding out what scientists who are 
good authority have to say on the nature of geography ; 
secondly, it may be studied by the exercise of one's 
own thought upon it ; that is, by one 's own thinking. 

First, we will see what those who know have to say 
about what geography is. 

The International Geographical Congress, which 
met at Venice in 1881, says: 

First, 'Hhe scientific object of geography compre- 
hends the study of the superficial forms of the earth; 
it extends also to the reciprocal relations of the differ- 
ent branches of the organic world." 

Secondly, ''that which eminently distinguishes 
geography from the auxiliary sciences is that it local- 
izes objects ; that is to say, it indicates in a positive and 
constant manner the distribution of beings, organic and 
inorganic upon the earth." 

Professor Hettner of the University of Leipsic said, 
in 1895: 

"The geography of to-day starts from the point of 
view of diversity in space, and aims at a scientific ex- 
planation of the nature of regions inclusive of their 
inhabitants. ' ' 

Professor Neumann of the University of Freiburg 
says: 

"General geography deals with the general laws of 
distribution of every class of phonomena on the earth's 
surface. ' ' 

Professor Davis of Harvard University says : 



NATURE AND SUBJECT-MATTER OF GEOGRAPHY. 395 

''Geography treats of al terrestrial phenomena in 
mutual dependence." 

Other authority says: ''Geography is the science 
of distribution." "Geography is the science which 
deals with the mutual relations in space of relief, cli- 
mate and life." 

It appears from these opinions of such eminent 
authority that the cardinal idea of greography is ex- 
pressed by the word distribution. This idea is the nu- 
cleus of every thought here quoted concerning the na- 
ture of geography. It is the idea of distribution which 
predominates in every quotation. Thus in the opinion 
of these authors distribution is the distinguishing char- 
acteristic of geography. 

The Popidar View. — It is doubtless entirely cor- 
rect to say that a large majority of people at the present 
time hold either consciously or unconsciously the popu- 
lar view of geography. They think of geography as be- 
ing composed of truths of astronomy, geology, miner- 
alogy, physics, chemistry, mechanics, zoology, botany, 
ethnology, anthropology, sociology, history, civics and 
economics, not organized into a separate science, but as 
fragments of various sciences. 

Evidence of this truth is found in the way the sub- 
ject is treated in the average text-book of geography 
and in the way the subject is most usually taught by 
teachers everywhere. 

The average text in geography treats of a little of 
the truth of almost every science, and in a way not at all 
different from the way truth is treated in the respective 



396 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

sciences. And most teachers, since their ideas of geog- 
raphy are molded by the text-book, teach a little of 
almost all sciences and call it geography. 

Such a view of geography is very unscientific and 
unsatisfactory to a mind desirous of accuracy and defi- 
niteness. With such a view of geography the teacher can 
literally scatter all over creation in teaching and still 
keep within the limits of his subject. Thus it is not a 
helpful view of the subject. 

Again, according to the popular view of geography 
there is nothing about the subject to distinguish it from 
the allied sciences, geology, astronomy, zoology, etc. 

This view is the view of the unthinking, slovenly 
teacher or author. 

There is no geographer if importance to-day who 
holds such a view. 

The Anthropological View. — The anthropological 
view of geography is that it is the science which deals 
with the truths of the earth as the home of man. Ac- 
cording to this view all phenomena of the earth are to 
be thought of in relation to their fitness or unfitness for 
man's home. 

This view is based upon the very unscientific as- 
sumption that all things were created and are provi- 
dentially governed for the welfare of man ; the assump- 
tion that every flower, every pebble, every mountain, 
every dewdrop, every ocean, every mosquito, every bug 
or beetle, every insect of any kind, every thunderbolt, 
every storm, etc., is the manifestation of a thought to 
contribute to the welfare of man. 



NATURE AND SUBJECT-MATTER OF GEOGRAPHY. 397 

This assumption violates in toto the greatest of all 
scientific truths, the truth of universal evolution. 

Thus this view of geography is in contradiction to 
the greatest of all scientific truths, and is therefore very- 
unscientific, too. It is a narrow view of geography. It 
is a bigoted, intolerant, selfish view of geography. It 
leads away from the truth as taught by the best scien- 
tists in all countries at present. 

If there ever was a time when such a view of geog- 
raphy should have been taught, it certainly has long 
since gone by. No up-to-date geography would hold 
such a view at the present time. 

The Scientific View. — This is the view that geog- 
raphy is a science separate and distinct from other 
sciences; dignified, worthy and exalted in the family of 
sciences. It holds that geography has an organization 
of its own; that it has an organizing truth peculiar to 
itself. It holds that, while geography deals with many 
trutlis w^hich are dealt with in other sciences, as in 
geology, astronomy, botany, zoology, etc., it deals with 
them in a relation characteristic of geography, but not 
characteristic of those sciences. That is to say, geog- 
graphy has its own organizing truth, or organizing prin- 
ciple. 

In this view geography deals with the phenomena 
of the earth as to their distribution. The phenomena of 
the earth are climate, relief forms, plant life, animal life 
and human life, on the surface of the earth. Climate 
means heat, light, moisture and winds. Relief forms 
means mountains, valleys, plains, plateaus, rivers, lakes, 



398 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

gulfs, bays, oceans, islands, etc. Animal life means 
quadrupeds, fishes, birds, reptiles, insects, worms, mol- 
lusks, etc. Human life means all sorts of men, women 
and children as those terms are commonly understood. 

Each of these things is cause of the distribution 
of the others ; and each of these things is also the effect 
of the others as to its distribution. Thus climate is the 
cause of the distribution of plant life, because plants can 
grow only where there is a supply of heat, light and 
moisture. But plants, especially forests, affect the heat 
and moisture of regions and thus are cause of distribu- 
tion of climate in turn. 

Again, plant life is the cause of distribution of ani- 
mal life, for animal life can exist to any large extent 
only where there is plant life. And animal life helps 
in the dissemination of the seeds of plant life and thus 
is in turn the cause of the distribution of plant life. 

The phenomena of the earth thus have to one an- 
other a mutual relation of distribution on the earth's 
surface. 

This view will be found upon study to be in har- 
mony with the views of the eminent geographers pre- 
viously quoted in this chapter. 

From the previous study the following is the scien- 
tific definition of geography: 

Geography is that science which treats of the phe- 
nomena of the earth as to their mutual relation of dis- 
tribution. 

The three essential ideas of this notion of geog- 
raphy are: 



NATURE AND SUBJECT-MATTER OF GEOGRAPHY. 399 

1. Geography is a science. 

2. Geography treats of the phenomena of the 
earth. 

3. The phenomena of the earth are to each other 
mutually cause and effect as to distribution. 

Geography is a science because it consists of a body 
of truth organized around a central idea. It is a sepa- 
rate science because the truths in geography are organ- 
ized around a central idea different from the central 
idea of any other science. 

The truths of geography are truths of climate, re- 
lief forms, minerals, plant life, animal life and human 
life. These, climate, relief forms, minerals, plant life, 
animal life and human life are the phenomena of the 
earth. Thus geography treats of the phenomena of the 
earth. 

The phenomena of the earth are widely distributed 
over the earth's surface, and this distribution is in har- 
mony with the laws of evolution. The most fundamental 
distribution being that of heat. The distribution of heat 
is the cause of the distribution of moisture and relief 
forms. And the distribution of moisture and relief 
forms is the cause of the distribution of heat. And 
this relation of distribution obtains among the various 
phenomena of the earth, in some instances to a smsll 
degree and in some to a large degree, but in all instances 
to some degree. Geography is the science and the only 
science which traces out this distribution. Hence the 
definition, "Geography is the science of distributions." 

And from this discussion the definition of geog- 



400 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

raphy can be elaborated into the following: Geography 
is that science which treats of climate, relief forms, 
minerals, plant life, animal life and human life as to 
their mutual relation of distribution over the earth's 
surface. 

The Concept, Geography. — The concept, geography- 
is one's general idea of geography. That is to say, the 
idea of geography made up of those elements found in 
all geography. In the scientific view of geography the 
following elements are found in the concept: 1. A 
science. 2. The phenomena of the earth. 3. The wide 
distribution of the phenomena. 4. The distribution of 
phenomena, the cause of the distribution of phenomena. 
5. The distribution of phenomena, the effect of the dis- 
tribution of phenomena. 

This is the concept of geography consistent with 
the universal truths of science, and the only one con- 
sistent with the great law of evolutionary development 
in both the organic and inorganic worlds. It is the most 
helpful working concept of geography, too. 

The Subject-matter of Geography. — It is to be re- 
called again that a subject-matter in any subject or les- 
son is the material of study; also, that every subject- 
matter consists of two things: (1) the facts to be 
studied or taught, and (2) the relation in which these 
facts are to be studied or taught. 

The facts to be understood in geography are the 
phenomena of the earth, and the relation in which they 
are to be taught is as to distribution on the earth's sur- 
face. This has before been seen to be a mutual rela- 



NATURE AND SUBJECT-MATTER OF GEOGRAPHY. 401 

tion. So the subject-matter of geography may be stated 
as follows: 

The subject-matter of geography is the phenomena 
of the earth as to their mutual relation of distribution 
on the earth^s surface. 

This statement means that in the subject of geog- 
raphy the learner is to be led to learn the facts of the 
phenomena of the earth, to see their distribution, to see 
the causes which produced this distribution, and to see 
the effects of this distribution. Only when he has done 
this, has he studied a fact of the earth geographically. 

For instance, the narrow strip of sandy soil along 
the eastern shore of Lake Michigan is one of the fruit 
gardens of the world and is commonly known as the 
peach belt. 

Now, the learner has learned this region geographic- 
ally only when he sees that the soil was formed by the 
glacial deposit and the throwing up of the sand by the 
water of Lake Michigan, and then by its recession ; when 
he learns that the climate, on an average ten degrees 
or so warmer in the winter than the climate of the 
region a hundred miles south, is tempered by the waters 
of the lake ; when he understands that the average rain- 
fall is more than forty inches annually, and that these 
conditions are conducive to fruit growing. Secondly, 
when he understands that the jdeld of peaches, pears, 
plums, cherries and berries and melons has made inten- 
sive farming a necessity; has made farms small, has 
caused the growth of cities; has established commercial 
routes and commerce; has caused nurseries to spring 



402 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

up; has established schools and churches and factories, 
and furnishes food supplies to almost all parts of the 
world. 

The Organizing Principle of Geography. — Geog- 
raphy, like history, has a distinct organizing principle 
of its own. It is the relation in the subject-matter, and 
is the thing which sets geography off from the allied 
sciences of astronomy, geology, botany, zoology, etc. It 
is a two-fold relation, cause and effect, mutually, which 
exists among the phenomena of the earth. It organizes 
geography as a science, and gives the subject its dis- 
tinctive character. The following is the formal state- 
ment for the organizing principle of geography : 

The organizing principle of geography is the mutual 
cause and effect relation between the phenomena of the 
earth as to their distribution on the earth^s surface. 

No other science has the same organizing principle 
as geography. Several sciences deal with the same facts 
as geography, in part, at any rate. Astronomy deals 
with the Solar System and so does geography; geology 
deals with the formation of soils and so does geog- 
raphy; botany and zoology deal with plants and ani- 
mals and so does geography. But geography is not 
astronomy, geology, botany nor zoology. These allied 
sciences deal with their facts in different relations from 
the relation in which geography deals with these same 
facts. Thus the sciences allied to geography differ from 
geography in that they (1) deal with facts in part 
different from the facts of geography; (2) have differ- 



NATURE AND SUBJECT-MATTER OF GEOGRAPHY. 403 

ent organizing principles from the organizing principle 
of geography. 

Geographical Facts and Relations. — A geographical 
fact is any fact which has any inJfluence upon the distri- 
bution of terrestrial phenomena. As such are the height 
of mountains, depth of valleys, amount of rainfall, a 
city, a canal, a railroad, etc. 

A geographical relation is a causal relation or an 
effect relation between any two terrestrial phenomena 
or groups of phenomena as to their distribution. 

Functions of the Organizing Principle of Geog- 
raphy. — As in history the organizing principle of geog- 
raphy has four functions: 1. Selective. 2. Interpret- 
ing. 3. Emphasizing. 4. Dividing. In general, this 
means that the teacher who knows the organizing prin- 
ciple of geography knows better what to select to teach, 
how to interpret it, what to emphasize and how to divide 
the subject than without such knowledge. 

The Selective Function. — In every subject taught 
in school the field from which the material is obtained is 
so broad that not all of it can be taught. A selection 
of material must be made. And in no other subject is 
the necessity for a selection greater than it is in the 
subject of geography, for in no other subject is there 
such a vast amount of material from which choice is 
to be made. One might study the phenomena of the 
earth a lifetime and still be able to master only a very 
little of geographical truth. 

As great as the need for selection from this vast 
field of geographical material is, not less great is the 



404 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

need for wise selection, the selection of those things 
which will be most worth studying as such, and which 
will furnish the greatest added power for the attack of 
new problems. This is often a difficult task, and since 
there is so much to choose from, the difficulty of the 
task is thus made greater. 

Teachers in the past have not troubled themselves 
to any very large extent with this problem. They have 
depended upon the text-book to select material for geog- 
raphy study and have followed the text usually pretty 
closely. As a result much scattering, fruitless teaching 
has been done in geography, because a worse selection 
of material could hardly be made than found in many 
texts. Usually a multitude of things are presented to 
study, but a mere pittance of truth stated about each. 
Geography becomes a mere memory drill, the student 
learning a little of almost everything and nothing much 
of anything. 

In this matter of the selection of material it is most 
desirable that the teacher be self -directive, that he may 
free himself from the text-book, be able to rise above it 
and select such material as should be used and reject 
such as should not. 

And this is just what is meant by the selective func- 
tion of the organizing principle of geography. It in- 
dicates to the teacher that those things are to be studied 
in geography which are large factors in the distri- 
bution of the earth's phenomena, and that those 
things which have little or nothing to do with 
distribution should be passed by. Adherence to this 



NATURE AND SUBJECT-MATTER OF GEOGRAPHY. 405 

function of the organizing principle of geography would 
correct to some degree the scattering, vague work so 
prevalent in geography. 

The Interpreting Function. — Facts of the phe- 
nomena of the earth as such belong no more to geog- 
raphy than they do to a half dozen other sciences. They 
are a part of the subject-matter of geography only when 
a geographical interpretation is placed upon them. In 
leading the learner to do this the teacher has opportu- 
nity to show his greatest skill in geography teaching and 
opportunity for doing the learner the greatest good in 
geography teaching. And to fail entirely to do this is 
to fail distressingly in geography teaching. 

The interpreting function of the organizing prin- 
ciple points the way properly to interpret a geograph- 
ical fact. It indicates that a geographical phenomenon is 
interpreted first, when the distribution which caused it 
to be located where it is, is traced out; and, secondly, 
when the distribution of which it is the cause is traced 
out. That is to say, a geographical phenomenon is an 
effect and a cause of distribution, and according to the 
organizing principle of geography it is interpreted by 
understanding that of which it is an effect and that of 
which it is a cause as to distribution. 

For instance, there is in South America a narrow 
verdant strip of country in Chili in which is located 
the city of Valparaiso. It has an equable and delight- 
ful climate with clear days and brilliant nights. Its 
summer is from November to March. It grows Indian 
corn, wheat, barley, oats, beans, beets, fruit, tobacco 



406 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

and silk. Large numbers of cattle, horses, mules, sheep 
and goats are reared. It is situated between the Andes 
Mountains and the coast. 

Now, according to the organizing principle of geog- 
raphy this bit of geographical truth is interpreted, first, 
when the causes which have located these phenomena 
here are faithfully traced out and understood; and, 
secondly, when the effect on the distribution of other 
terrestrial phenomena which the location of these phe- 
nomena has caused is traced out and understood. 

The attitude of mind of teacher or learner which 
leads to a tendency for him habitually to place such an 
interpretation upon terrestrial phenomena is what is 
called the geography habit. It is that which the teacher 
should strive to establish in the mind of every geog- 
raphy student. 

The Emphasizing Function. — It is a rare teacher 
who is able to distinguish between the important and 
the unimportant to a large degree in his subject and 
emphasize the important and pass by lightly the unim- 
portant. 

The organizing principle of geography guides the 
teacher in doing this and this is what is meant by its 
emphasizing function. 

The emphasizing function of the organizing prin- 
ciple of geography shows that from the vast number of 
terrestrial phenomena those which are large factors in 
distribution should be studied intensively, that is, em- 
phasized; and that most of those which do not influence 
distribution largely are not to be dealt with at all in 



NATURE AND SUBJECT-MATTER OF GEOGRAPHY. 407 

the geography of elementary schools, since time is lack- 
ing for the mastery of those which do. 

Thus in the geography of Illinois Chicago is of 
great geographical value, Springfield much less, and 
Kankakee still less, because of its being a much smaller 
factor in distribution. 

The Dividing Function. — In the proper organiza- 
tion of any subject divisions in its subject-matter are 
necessary. They enable the mind better to grasp the 
subject. And in making divisions bases of division must 
be sought. The organizing principle of geography 
guides the mind of the teacher and learner in making 
helpful divisions in geography, and this is what is 
meant by the dividing function of the organizing prin- 
ciple. 

The dividing function shows that certain groups 
of phenomena influence distribtuion in one way and 
other groups influence distribution other ways. Thus 
on the basis of the way forces influence distribution 
divisions of geography should be made. The divisions 
of geography into Mathematical, Physical, Political, 
Commercial, etc., are arbitrary to a considerable degree. 
Geography is geography and any attempt to divorce 
Mathematical, Physical, Political, etc., militates against 
proper interpretation. 

In concluding this chapter, it is safe to say that 
the scientific conception of geography is held by very 
few teachers, and most would not know what one means 
by an organizing principle in geography. And that the 
scientific conception, including a definite idea of the 



408 



PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 



organizing principle, of geography can hardly be over- 
estimated in value to the teacher of geography. 



CHAPTER XXXII. 

THE PURPOSE OF GEOGRAPHY. 

Meaning of. — Purpose in any subject, it will be re- 
membered, is the effect the mastery of the subject pro- 
duces in the life of the learner. Thus then, in general, 
the purpose of geography is the effect that geography 
studied under favorable conditions will produce in the 
life of the learner. 

Classes of Purpose. — Geography will in a large 
sense do two things for the one who studies it. It will, 
first, give a store of knowledge valuable to the learner 
for guidance in living; secondly, it will furnish mental 
training, power of thought valuable to the learner in 
thinking out the problems of life as he comes to them. 
These two purposes are, respectively, the knowledge- 
giving purpose, and disciplinary purpose. 

The Knowledge-giving Purpose. — From the valu- 
able knowledge point of view it is the purpose of geog- 
raphy to give the following to the learner : 

1. A definite knowledge of the geography of his 
home life and immediate geographical environment. 

2. A good definite knowledge of the most impor- 
tant geographical centers of the world. 

3. A clear and positive knowledge that all phe- 
nomena of the earth are in entire accord with nature's 
laws and that these laws are uniform. 



410 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

4. A positive knowledge that the phenomena of 
the earth are, as to their distribution, both cause and 
effect. 

5. Knowledge which will furnish an adequate 
basis for the pursuit of the other natural sciences. 

The Disciplinary Purpose. — From the disciplinary 
point of view it is the purpose of geography to do the 
following for the learner: 

1. To give the learner a fervent, many-sided, en- 
during, drawing interest in the objects of nature. 

2. To correct superstitions by leading the learner 
into the habit of explaining phenomena by their causal 
relations to known facts. 

3. To give the learner good habits of observing 
nature around him. 

4. To cultivate sense-perception, memory, imagina- 
tion and reasoning. 

5. To give the learner the spirit of free inquiry 
and free investigation ; that is, the scientific spirit. 

Home Geography. — It certainly is an important 
part of the purpose of geography to give the learner 
a definite knowledge of the region immediately sur- 
rounding his home; a knowledge of the rainfall, the 
snow, the average temperature, the length of day and 
night, the constellations and the planets which may be 
seen, the hills, creeks, rivers, valleys, marshes, etc., the 
animals, the common plants, the natural products, 
routes of commerce, roads and many other things which 
children may be led to learn first-hand. Such knowledge 



THE PURPOSE OF GEOGRAPHY. 411 

with the exercise required to get it would be a pretty 
good education in itself. 

The suggestion here is that it seems unaccountable 
that teachers as a rule can find nothing in such a wealth 
of material for lessons in home geography. 

At present it is not the rule to do this part of 
geography work even poorly either in city or country 
schools. 

Knowledge of Important Geographical Centers. — 
It must be evident that geography is to teach the learner 
the location and geographical importance of the centers 
of distribution of the leading countries of the world. 
Everyone tries in some sort of way to do this. But the 
difficulty is that in trying to do so there come up so 
many things to be taught that there is a great tendency 
to scatter too much in the work. And as a result the 
learner gets a small knowledge of a great many things 
but a good definite knowledge of no important geo- 
graphical centers. His geography work becomes a mat- 
ter of memory of many things most of which he soon 
forgets. 

So the purpose in this instance is to give the 
learner a good, definite knowledge of the most important 
geographical centers of the countries of the world. Not 
all geographical centers are to be attempted; only 
the most important, to as large a number as time and 
development will permit. 

Uniformity of Nature's Laws. — Geography is one 
of the best subjects in school to teach the learner that 
nature's laws are uniform and that all the earth's phe- 



412 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

nomena are in accord with them. This is constantly 
impressed upon him by tracing the causes which lead 
up to phenomena. Nothing appears the result of chance. 
Nothing appears to be special dispensations of Provi- 
dence. Niagara Falls are just where they are because 
of perfectly natural conditions. Chicago is not an acci- 
dent, but the causes which have produced Chicago are 
entirely and clearly comprehensible from a perfectly 
natural viewpoint. This becomes a habit of mind with 
the learner, and he knows it as well as he can know 
anything inductively. And this point of knowledge is 
a valuable part of the purpose of geography from the 
knowledge-giving viewpoint. 

Knowledge that Phenomena are Both Cause and 
Effect. — It is worth while for the learner to know that 
every phenomenon of the earth looks in two directions, 
forward and backward. In so far as its influence looks 
forward it is a cause of the distribution of something 
in some way. In so far as it looks backward it has 
been influenced in some way as to distribution, that is, 
it is an effect. 

The learner should know this; it helps him to un- 
derstand the world in which he lives; it helps him to 
think of nature in the right way. 

Thus to give the learner as positive knowledge that 
the phenomena of the earth are as to their distribution 
both cause and effect is a part of the knowledge-giving 
purpose of geography. 

A Basis for the Study of Other Sciences. — Geog- 
raphy is preeminently adapted to give the learner a 



THE PURPOSE OP GEOGRAPHY. 413 

knowledge which furnishes a basis for the study of other 
sciences. In his geography work he learns something 
of the solar system, the stars, the comets, and meteors. 
His knowledge of these things forms a basis for his 
beginning the study of astronomy. 

In his geography study he learns something of 
rock formation, coal deposits, canons, the glacial drift, 
the ice age, the formation of soils, fossils, and so on, 
and this knowledge forms the basis for his beginning 
the study of geology and mineralogy. 

He also in his geography learns many truths of 
plant life, many truths of animal life, truths of chem- 
istry, truths of solids, liquids, fluids, light, electricity 
and these truths become basis for the subjects of botany, 
zoology, chemistry and physics. 

Thus geography in the school curriculum forms the 
child's natural introduction to the natural sciences and 
lays a good basis for their pursuit. And to do this is 
one purpose the teacher should hold in mind in teaching 
geography. 

Interest in Nature. — In the earlier stages of geog- 
raphy the work should be mainly the concrete study of 
natural objects in their natural environment. Such 
work tends toward a strong interest in nature, for such 
work always proves very attractive to the learner. If 
well done the learner becomes intensely interested in the 
objects of nature; that is, his interest becomes fervent. 
Again, if this work is adequately done, the learner will 
become interested in flowers, weeds, mosses, lichens, 
mushrooms, trees, corn, wheat and so on; in worms, 



414 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

bugs, beetles, grasshoppers, flies, moths, butterflies, bees, 
birds, toads, squirrels, and so on; in rocks, soils, fossils, 
stars, constellations, planets, etc. That is to say, his in- 
terest becomes many-sided. And lastly, in doing such 
geography work such an interest is acquired as will 
take the learner to the field, forest, and stream; to the 
planets, animals, soils, rocks, and other of nature's won- 
derful and beautiful things, and once acquired it will 
stay with him through life. That is, the interest will 
become drawing and enduring. 

Thus from a disciplinary point of view, it is. one of 
the purposes of geography to give the learner a fervent, 
many-sided, enduring, drawing interest in the objects 
of nature. 

Correcting Superstitions. — A superstition has been 
defined as attributing some occurrence to some other oc- 
currence as a cause when actually the antecedent occur- 
rence had no causal connection with the succeeding. 

There are a great many popular superstitions which 
geography may break down by giving the learner the 
mental habit of actually recognizing causal relations. 
He thus becomes analytic in thought and no longer 
believes in the influence of the moon on potatoes, stones 
in a meadow or shingles on a roof. Neither will he be- 
lieve in the influence of the stars and planets as fating 
any one's life to this or that destiny. 

Thus it is a part of the disciplinary purpose of 

geography to break down superstitious habits of thought. 

Habits of Observation. — Since the elementary parts 

of geography work are the concrete study of natural 



THE PURPOSE OF GEOGRAPHY. 415 

objects in their natural environment and what is known 
as field work in geography, the subject gives the learner 
good habits of observation. He unconsciously acquires 
the habit of watching the birds, the trees, beetles, flow- 
ers and weeds, rocks, toads, snakes, butterflies, soils, 
fruits, and relief forms, and so on. He comes to have 
eyes with which he sees and ears with which he hears. 
He observes the departure and return of the birds, 
their love affairs, their disappointments and the trage- 
dies in their lives; their food, their friends and their 
enemies. He observes the form, growth, leaves, flowers 
and fruit of trees, weeds, and plants friendly to man, 
and many, many other things in nature around him. 

The value of such a mental habit can not well be 
over-estimated, and it is a part of the disciplinary pur- 
pose of geography to give it. 

The Cultivation of Sense-perception, Memory, Im- 
aginatio7i and Reasoning. — The first-hand study of 
natural objects and the home geography including field 
work are eminently fitted to cultivate sense-perception. 
There is material in this kind of geography work to 
cultivate sense-perception through sight, hearing, touch, 
smell and taste, for these aspects of sense-perception are 
often brought into exercise, and it is through exercise 
that cultivation is brought about. 

Geography is popularly placed first among the sub- 
jects in the school curriculum as suited to cultivate 
imagination. And it is a certainty that almost every 
lesson calls into activity the imagination. In forming 
mental pictures of mountains, plains, valleys, plateaus. 



416 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

rivers, forests, springs, lakes, cornfields, wheatfields, 
cottonfields, peoples, cities and hundreds of other things 
the child must use largely his imagination. 

A point to be recognized in this connection though 
is, that the imaginative pictures are always formed out 
of the elements of one's experience and that, for this 
reason, no proper cultivation of the imagination can 
be induced in the learner whose mind is characterized 
by a poverty of first-hand contact with geographical 
material. This means that in the absence of the concrete 
work in home geography and field w^ork, geography can 
not be largely valuable in cultivating imagination. 

If the foundation be well laid in contact with 
nature in the home geography and in field work, geog- 
raphy may be made one of the most valuable subjects 
for cultivating the imagination; otherwise, it can not. 

There is much exercise of the memory in learning 
geography. As it is frequently taught the memory drill 
is almost the whole exercise. But not all exercise of 
the memory is valuable by any means. Memory may 
be exercised in such a way as to break down the ability 
to think. Students may acquire the habit of depending 
upon their memories almost wholly. Such students 
frequently do not learn to think very well for them- 
selves. 

But geography so taught that the learner shall fix 
firmly in mind the organizing truth of the subject and 
see the various phenomena to be remembered as so many 
instances of this organizing truth cultivates memory in 



THE PURPOSE OF GEOGRAPHY. 417 

the very best way possible. Thus taught geography cul- 
tivates the memory largely. 

Geography is perhaps not usually thought of as a 
subject good to cultivate reasoning. But, if an inter- 
pretation be placed upon geographical phenomena, 
geography becomes a good subject to cultivate reasoning. 
Laws of distribution are discovered inductively; geo- 
graphical concepts are formed inductively, and laws are 
applied to particular instances of distribution deduc- 
tively. 

Geography used to be thought of as merely an ele- 
mentary school subject, but now it is regarded as a 
university subject, in which as high degree of thinking 
is required as in any other university subject. When 
geography once is appreciated it will be regarded as 
one of the best of school subjects to cultivate reasoning. 

The Scientific Spirit. — The scientific spirit is the 
spirit of free inquiry and free investigation. Its watch- 
words are experiment, observe and think. It is the atti- 
tude of mind in which nothing short of truth satisfies. 
It is the result of quickening the intellectual hunger of 
the mind, the soul's passion for knowledge. It is the 
characteristic of the mind ''open to receive, and wel- 
come, and utilize, and enjoy the beauty of unadorned 
truth and the truth of simple beauty." 

The scientific spirit hates the 'immorality of the 
intellect which withholds, distorts, minimizes, or refuses 
to acknowledge, the truth.' 

The constant exercise in geography in searching for 
truth leads the learner into the scinentific spirit, and 



418 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

to do this is a part of the purpose of geography from the 
disciplinary point of view. 

Large Value of Geography. — The above study shows 
geography to be possessed of much larger educational 
value than is popularly attributed to it. Geography is 
a fine subject; wide in extensity and deep in intensity, 
dignified, scientific and worthy of the highest regard by 
teachers everywhere. 



CHAPTER XXXIII. 

THE BASIS OF GEOGRAPHY. 

Meaning of Basis. — It will be remembered that 
basis is the knowledge possessed by the learner upon 
which the teacher can build in teaching any subject or 
any lesson. The principle of mind underlying basis is 
that the mind in learning naturally goes to the unknown 
from the nearest related knoivn. The nearest related 
known is the basis. 

It is presumed that, when the child comes to school 
at about the age of six, he will have some points of 
knowledge from which the teacher can lead him to the 
unknown. These points of knowledge are his basis for 
studying geography. 

Aspects of Basis. — The learner in the pursuit of 
geography will study climate, relief forms, minerals, 
plant life, animal life, and human life. He knows 
something of each one of these when he comes to school. 
Thus there will be six aspects of the learner's basis; 
(1) his basis for studying climate; (2) his basis for 
studying relief forms; (3) his basis for the study of 
minerals; (4) his basis for the study of plant life; 
(5) his basis for the study of animal life, and (6) his 
basis for the study of human life. 

Basis for Climate. — Children's knowledge of cli- 



420 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

mate before they come to school will vary to a consid- 
erable degree, but all know something about it. 

Their knowledge of climate will be what is called 
ordinary knowledge in distinction from scientific knowl- 
edge. This ordinary knowledge will in part be vague 
and in part be definite; it will be incomplete, unsys- 
tematic; and will have error mixed with the truth in it. 

The learner will possibly know that there is a 
winter, a summer, a spring and a fall; that it is colder 
in winter than in summer; that it rains or snows at 
some times and at other times it is dry; that some days 
are sunshiny and others are cloudy; that at some times 
the wind blows and at other times it is calm. He may 
know that heat comes from the sun. He may have heard 
that the moon influences the weather, and will likely 
know something of dew. 

His ideas of all these things constitute his basis 
for the study of climate. 

Basis for Relief Forms. — The child's knowledge of 
relief when he comes to school will be ordinary knowl- 
edge, too. 

He will probably know something of hills, brooks, 
creeks, lakes, rivers, ponds, level land, rolling land, 
springs, soils, islands, and in many cases other things, 
such as mountains, gorges, passes, etc. 

His ideas of these things constitute his basis for the 
study of relief forms. 

Basis for Minerals. — The learner's basis for the 
study of minerals consists of his ordinary knowledge of 
perchance coal, the kinds of coal, iron, copper, lead, 



THE BASIS OF GEOGRAPHY. 421 

zinc, tin, silver and gold. He probably knows coal 
comes out of the ground, and some will have seen a coal 
mine. He has seen rocks, has picked up pretty ones 
and has played with them and has learned something 
about them. He will know something of the uses of 
iron, coal, copper, stone, lead, tin, silver and gold. 

All of this is his foundation for the study of min- 
erals. 

Basis for Plants. — What the learner has learned 
from experience of plants will constitute his basis here. 

All will likely know something of trees; something 
of grasses; something of weeds; something of flowers; 
something of apples, pears, cherries, peaches, bananas, 
oranges, grapes and berries. Many will know that 
oranges and bananas do not grow in cold countries; 
that apples, cherries, pears, peaches and grapes do grow 
in cold countries. Many will know walnuts, hickory 
nuts, hazel nuts, and something of where and how they 
grow. 

All of this empirical knowledge and any other of a 
similar kind constitutes the learner's basis for the study 
of the distribution of plants. 

Basis for Animal Life. — The child in most cases 
when he comes to school at the age of six will have 
quite a good deal of knowledge of animal life. He will 
know something of domestic animals. He will likely 
know the dog, some of the different kinds, their uses, 
food and habits; the cat, something of its habits, its 
food and uses; the horse, its food, care and uses; the 
cow, milk, butter, the food, and other uses of the cow; 



422 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

chickens, their habits, their food, homes, nests, eggs 
and young ; hogs, their habits, food and uses ; birds, and 
their habits; insects of various kinds, and something 
of their habits. 

Many of them have been to public parks, and 
shows. All have seen pictures of animals in picture 
books and in papers and have obtained some sort of 
idea of them in this way. 

These points of knowledge and any additional simi- 
lar ones make up the child 's basis for the study of the 
distribution of animal life. 

Basis for the Study of the Distribution of Human 
Life. — The child will know more about human life when 
he comes to school for the first time than about any of 
the other five points in the learner's basis for studying 
geography, because he will have had more experience 
with people than with the others. 

He will know something of the distribution of peo- 
ple in the country and something in a general way of 
their occupations; that many live in cities, and some- 
thing of their occupations; that there are differently 
colored people, some white, some black, and some yel- 
low, and that these live in other parts of the world in 
the main. He will know something about human in- 
dustries and about the division of labor; some keep 
store, some are engaged in railroading; some, in bank- 
ing, some, in mining and some, in farming. 

He will know their habits, homes, food, amusements, 
and distribution of institutions, church, school, and 
so on. 



THE BASIS OF GEOGRAPHY. 423 

What is enumerated here and much more along 
the same line some of the children will know as a basis 
for the study of the distribution of human life on the 
earth's surface. 

Adequate Basis. — A view of the basis which the 
child will have as a rule when he comes to school the 
first time shows that he has an abundance of material 
for an adequate basis for beginning the study of geog- 
raphy the first year in school. Thus those who do not 
teach geography to the child early in his school life can 
not rightly urge lack of basis as a reason. Failure to 
teach it early must be explained in some other way. 



CHAPTER XXXIV. 

STEPS IN GEOGRAPHY. 

Meaning of. — Steps in geography mean the more 
or less definite divisions of mental activity in learning 
geography. They are spiritual things and are in the 
life of the learner. Thus the mental activity the 
learner's mind goes through in learning Niagara Falls 
is one large step in geography. This step could be 
analyzed into many smaller steps, of course. 

Classes of Steps. — There are two points of view re- 
garding steps in geography. One may look at steps as 
those activities which the mind has in mastering any 
part of geography, as the mastery of waterfalls, or the 
mastery of canals as geographical phenomena. Such 
steps are the logical steps in geography. These steps 
the mind must take in studying any geographical phe- 
nomena whatever. They are a necessity to the mastery 
of any entire geographical point. 

Then again, one may study what step the mind 
should take first, secondly, thirdly, and so on through 
the subject of geography. That is to say, what the 
steps are in the order of time. These steps are the 
chronological steps in geography. 

The Logical Steps. — As said, these steps are a 
necessity to the geographical mastery of any entire geo- 
graphical point. 



STEPS IN GEOGRAPHY. 425 

To grasp a point in geography as a geographical 
point the mind (1) must think it as a phenomenon of 
the earth; (2) must think it as to its location; (3) must 
think it as the effect of distribution; (4) must think 
it as the cause of distribution. 

Thus the logical steps in geography are as follows: 

1. The advance of the learner's mind in learning 
the phenomena of the earth. 

2. The advance of the learner ^s mind in learning 
the location of the phenomena of the earth. 

3. The advance of the learner's mind in learning 
the phenomena as cause of the distribution of other 
phenomena on the earth's surface. 

4. The advance of the learner's mind in learning 
phenomena as the effect of the distribution of other 
phenomena on the earth's surface. 

To see the logical steps in geography is helpful to 
the teacher in that it enables him to see what it means 
to teach phenomena of the earth geographically, and 
what it means for the learner to know phenomena of 
the earth geographically. It guides in geographical 
interpretation. 

Chronological Steps. — These as indicated are the 
steps in geography from the point of view of order in 
time. The question here is, What should be done first 
in teaching geography, what next, and next, and so on 
through the subject? 

The order of the steps here is, of course, the im- 
portant point in the study of the chronological steps in 
geography. Much depends upon what is attempted first. 



426 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

secondly, thirdly, next and next and so on through the 
subject of geography. 

In deciding the order of the chronological steps 
help may be obtained from a study of the stages in the 
geography work in school, and to these we will devote 
some time. 

Stages of Geography Learning. — In learning geog- 
raphy the approach of the mind to the subject is differ- 
ent from that of the mind in many subjects. The ulti- 
mate unit of geography is the earth as a whole, and 
the learner can not understand geography well till he 
sees the phenomena of the earth in relation to the earth 
as a whole. Naturally, the mind in studying a thing, 
first, attempts to get an idea of it as a whole; then, 
it proceeds to analyze it into its larger parts first ; study 
these ; then analyze it into its next smaller parts, and so 
on. But the child can not well do this in the study of 
the earth. The whole is too large for him in the early 
stages of school work. In this case it is more natural 
for the child to learn the geographical phenomena in his 
near-by environment in the early stages of school work, 
and reach out a little further and further as he de- 
velops, until a stage is reached to warrant his studying 
the earth as a whole. 

Thus, from this point of view there are two stages 
of geography work. 1. The synthetic stage. 2. The 
analytic stage. 

The Synthetic Stage. — In this stage the learner puts 
together his ideas of geographical phenomena as his 
geographical horizon widens. At first he knows but 



STEPS IN GEOGRAPHY. 427 

a few things of the phenomena of the earth about his 
home; then, of the immediate neighborhood; then, of 
township, county, state, and country, and so on. 

It is clear that his process of mind in this work is 
synthetic; that is, it is predominantly a process of 
building up a larger whole out of smaller parts. 

The concrete work with natural objects in their 
natural environment and the home geography work, 
upon which so much depends for success in teaching 
geography come in the synthetic stage of learning 
geography. 

The Analytic Stage. — Eventually the learner 
reaches a stage of development which warrants his 
learning an idea of the earth as a whole. He learns its 
form, its size, its relation to the sun, its motion around 
the sun, its rotation upon its axis, the phenomena of 
day and night, the phenomena of the seasons. He 
learns the meaning of parallels, meridians, zones, zenith, 
horizon, etc. He learns divisions, continents, islands, 
countries, states, analyzing into smaller and smaller 
geographical wholes. 

This process of learning is clearly one of analysis 
in the main; that is, a process of separating a whole 
into smaller and smaller parts, and the study of these 
parts in relation to the whole. 

Most of the work of advanced geography is in the 
analytic stage. 

There is some ground for looking at the stages in 
geography teaching from a different point of view from 



428 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

that just studied above, from a kind of development 
point of view. 

There is a time in the earliest part of the child's 
school life in which it has been found better to do a 
line of work preparatory to the real geography work to 
come later. In this stage the learner would learn some 
geography, but the stage would be more as a prepara- 
tion for the real geography work later. 

Then there is a second period in the teaching of 
geography in which the child studies geography work 
proper, but the work is not so abstract, not analytical 
as later on. This in general is what has popularly 
been called the primary geography work. 

And lastly there is a stage of geography work 
which is analytical, and difficult, if carried out very far. 
In a rather broad general way it is what is called 
advanced geography. 

Thus from this general point of view of develop- 
ment in teaching geography there are the three follow- 
ing stages in geography teaching : 1. The preparatory 
stage. 2. The primary stage. 3. The advanced stage. 

The Preparatory Stage. — Approximately this may 
be made to cover about the first two years of the 
learner's school life. It is the stage in which the child 
is led to study the natural objects around him in their 
natural environment. It is concrete, first-hand work 
with the animals, plants, rocks, soils, ponds, hills, 
brooks, and so on in the community where he lives. 

The work in this stage is not to be differentiated 
at all from the nature study work of these same years. 



STEPS IN GEOGRAPHY. 429 

The child is learning the things of nature, and to use 
his eyes and ears and hands in becoming acquainted 
with some of the thousands of wonderful, beautiful, and 
good things in touch with his life. 

As the name of the stage signifies, the work is pre- 
paratory to geography work proper, and is the best 
preparation possible for real geography work. In this 
work no strict geographical interpretation is placed 
upon the phenomena learned. The things are learned 
as phenomena merely. 

The Primary Stage. — This stage covers about three 
years in the learner's school life, the third, fourth and 
fifth. The scope of the stage will vary with changing 
conditions, depending upon the progress of the learner, 
the length of the school year and so on, but in a general 
way it should cover the years indicated. 

The work of these three years consists of what is 
called home geography, mastery of general ideas of 
geographical elements, and type studies. 

In the home geography, lessons are given first on 
food supplies and connected occupations; that is, on 
gardening, farming, fruit growing, dairying, poultry 
raising and stock raising. Secondly, on building ma- 
terial and connected occupations. Thirdly, on clothing 
material and connected occupations. Fourthly, on local 
relief forms. Fifthly, on local commerce. Sixthly, on 
local government. And seventhly, on local trade and 
manufacturing. 

This work is to be made quite largely field work; 



430 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

that is, the children should study these things first-hand 
as much as possible. 

In the mastery of the general ideas of the geo- 
graphical elements, the child learns the ideas, mountain, 
hill, plateau, island, volcano, river, lake, gulf, penin- 
sula, etc. This work is to be done inductively in so far as 
posible. 

For instance, if the idea, island, is to be taught, the 
teacher should find a miniature island somewhere near 
the school if possible, and visit it with the children. She 
should direct them in looking at it so they can see the 
essential truths about it. Then the children should 
make an island on the sand board. Then they should 
visit some islands by imaginary journeys. 

The teacher next has the children to make lists of 
the truths they found out about each island, one list 
for each, and then drop out all the truths except those 
which every island possesses. The lesson is finished by 
having the children make a statement for what an 
island is. 

The other general ideas of the geographical ele- 
ments are to be taught in the same way; that is, induc- 
tively. 

In the type studies, types of geographical phe- 
nomena are studied intensively. For instance, the Wa- 
bash River might be studied intensively as a type of 
river; Peoria, as a type of city, etc. 

This work is better done without any regular text- 
book in the hands of the learner. 

The Advanced Stage. — This stage includes the rest 



STEPS IN GEOGRAPHY. 431 

of the learner's geography work in school. The text- 
book is placed in the learner's hand, and he is taught 
the earth as a whole; its form, size, revolution around 
the sun, rotation upon its axis, the phenomena of the 
seasons, the phenomena of day and night, divisions, 
islands, continents, countries, states, etc. 

This work is analytic, and a strictly geographical 
interpretation is placed upon the phenomena studied. 

The Chronological Order. — In the light of the pre- 
vious study the nature of the geography course through- 
out the eight years of primary school work may be 
pretty well mapped out. The following could be profit- 
ably done: 

FIRST YEAR. 

A line of concrete study of the natural objects 
around the child in their natural environment. The 
lesson should be first-hand study, conducted orally, and 
correlated with primary language. 

SECOND YEAR. 

A continuation of the first year's work. The work 
should be correlated with primary language, spelling, 
reading and writing. 

THIRD YEAR. 

A line of home geography work, the study of food 
supplies and connected occupations; farming, garden- 
ing, flower growing, fruit growing, poultry raising, 
dairying, and stock raising. 

A study of the general ideas, river^ lake, mountain, 



432 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

hill and pond. The imaginary journeys go along with 
this line of work. 

No text is placed in the hands of the learner. The 
work is conducted by oral teaching, and field work, and 
is correlated with primary language, reading, writing 
and spelling. 

A geographical interpretation is placed to some 
extent upon the phenomena studied. 

FOURTH YEAR. 

A line of home geography work; (1) the study of 
building materials of the community and connected oc- 
cupations; (2) the study of clothing materials and con- 
nected occupations; (3) further study of food supplies 
and connected occupations. 

A study of the general ideas, volcano, plain, pla- 
teau, gulf, hay, peninsula, and isthmus. The imagi- 
nary journey work is to be done in connection with 
teaching these general ideas inductively. 

No text is placed in the hands of the learner this 
year. Oral teaching is used, field work is done, and the 
work is correlated with primary language, reading, 
spelling and writing, 

A geographical interpretation is placed upon the 
phenomena studied to a somewhat larger extent than in 
the preceding year's work. 

FIFTH YEAR. 

A line of home geography, (1) the study of the 
surface structure of the community; (2) a study of the 
minerals of the community and connected occupations; 



STEPS IN GEOGRAPHY. 433 

(3) a study of the manufacturing of the community; 

(4) a study of the trades of the community; (5) a 
study of local commerce. 

No specific text is placed in the hands of the 
learner. Field work and oral teaching are followed out, 
and the lessons are correlated with language lessons, 
spelling, reading and writing. 

The teacher now begins to lead the learner to inter- 
pret geographically the phenomena studied, in so far 
as ability and time will warrant. 

SIXTH, SEVENTH AND EIGHTH YEARS. 

The work of these years falls in the Analytic Stage 
of geography learning. The text-book is placed in the 
hands of the learner, and such divisions of the work are 
made as the conditions under which the teacher is teach- 
ing warrant. 

Of course, the learner is first to be taught the 
earth as a whole, and its movements in the Solar Sys- 
tem. Then he proceeds in the analytic work. 

A strictly geographical interpretation is placed 
upon the phenomena studied in these three years. 

With the work of the five preceding years done 
even fairly well after the plan indicated in these 
studies, the learner's progress will be rapid, positive 
and pleasant. 

Comment. — It is not the intention to say that the 
order of chronological steps explained in these studies 
is the only pedagogical order, but it is the intention 
to say that the order indicated is a good one. Neither 



434 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

is it supposed that conditions are such that every 
teacher can teach as indicated here, but something to- 
ward such work can be done by every teacher, and 
much can be done by many, and it is worth the effort. 

Nature Studies. — In the first two years of the 
geography work natural objects are to be studied first- 
hand. This work is not differentiated from the Nature 
Study in the curriculum. So the way of dealing with 
the objects studied will be the same in the two subjects. 
This will be explained at length under "Steps" in the 
method of nature study. For this the reader is referred 
to page 468. 

Oral Teaching. — Throughout the first five years' 
work the teaching is largely oral. The manner of it is 
as follows : first, the teacher and children study some 
nature object first-hand for maybe several days. Then 
an oral recitation is conducted by the teacher's asking 
such questions as will bring forth the truths which the 
teacher has been striving to have the learner see. The 
learner answers orally. No books are used by the chil- 
dren. 

Secondly, in the imaginary journey work in teach- 
ing the general ideas of the geographical elements, the 
teacher gives the journey in as realistic a way as pos- 
sible in story form. The children recite on it later 
orally, or in writing, if the teacher desires. 

Thirdly, in the field work, students and teacher study 
the phenomena first-hand. Then oral or written recita- 
tions or both are conducted on it. 



STEPS IN GEOGRAPHY. 435 

Such work is called oral work and it possesses many 
points of advantage over book work. 

Imaginary Journeys. — The imaginary journeys are 
given orally by the teacher in story form in teaching 
the general ideas of the geographical elements. They 
enable the student to study particular cases in learning 
the general ideas of the geographical elements induc- 
tively. The student also gets many ideas of the great- 
ness of the earth, the diversity of its phenomena, and 
the distribution of its people in the work of the imagi- 
nary journeys. 

Type Studies. — The study of types is a great econo- 
mizer of time and energy in geography work. When 
the learner has studied intensively one type, New 
Orleans, for instance, he has learned the essential truths 
of all similar cities and a basis of comparison, which 
has become to him an instrument of thought. Thus 
type studies enable the learner to interpret geograph- 
ical phenomena. 

Type studies have the following advantages : 

1. They save time and energy. 

2. They form bases of comparison. 

3. They enable the learner to interpret geograph- 
ical phenomena. 

4. They form centers of study around which geo- 
graphical phenomena cluster. 

5. They prevent to some degree the scattering 
geography work so common in the schools at present. 

Field Work. — Geography without field work lacks 
the best thing there is for the learner in geography, the 



436 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

vitalizing relation which should exist between the phe- 
nomena of the earth and the learner. Without field 
work the learner will never catch the spirit of geog- 
raphy. The study of the book, the chart, the map or 
the globe is all but dead to him. There are thousands 
and tens of thousands of teachers talking loud and long 
about phenomena of the earth in their classes who 
would not know said phenomena if they should meet 
them face to face in the road — mere babblers from 
books. 

The geography class should be taken to see all sorts 
of geographical phenomena to be found in the neigh- 
borhood, and there are many in every neighborhood, 
then the data gathered should be made basis for both 
oral and written lessons in geography. The teacher who 
can not get interested in this work and who can not 
do some of it is certainly an object of commiseration. 



CHAPTER XXXV. 

DEVICES IN TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 

Meaning of. — Devices in any subject are the exter- 
nal means used in the process by which the learner is 
led to learn the subject; that is, in the teaching act. 
They are external to the mind of both teacher and 
learner and thus are always physical in nature. 

The following is a list of the main ones used in 
teaching geography: 1. Assignments. 2. Class discus- 
sions. 3. Field work. 4. Text-book. 5. Maps, globes, 
etc. 6. Map drawing. 7. Reference library. 8. Sand 
Table. 9. Outlines. 10. Imaginary journeys. 

Assignments. — Assignments are in many respects 
the most important device in teaching. It is difficult 
to say which is more important, assignments or class 
discussions. These belong to a preeminent order of 
importance. 

The nature and quality of the recitation, the pro- 
gress the learner makes, his habits of study and his atti- 
tude toward the subject of geography are determined 
largely by the assignments the teacher gives. 

Each assignment should have the following charac- 
teristics, in geography: (1) it should be pointed and 
definite; (2) it should place specific problems before the 
learner to be solved; (3) it should put these problems 



438 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

before the learner so that he can solve them; (4) it 
should lead the learner to solve the problems in the 
right way; it should usually tend toward the geog- 
raphy habit of mind. 

With such assignments success in teaching geog- 
raphy will further depend almost wholly on the class 
discussions. 

Class Discussions. — Class discussions are the most 
important device in teaching geography with the pos- 
sible exception of assignments. It is in the class dis- 
cussion that the teacher holds the learner to the re- 
sponsibility of working out the assignment. Class dis- 
cussions in geography enable the teacher (1) to test 
the learner on his preparation and understanding of 
problems given him; (2) to supplement the knowledge 
he got in the preparation of the assignment ; ( 3 ) to lead 
the learner to place a geographical interpretation upon 
the phenomena he studies; (4) to give the learner right 
habits of studying geography. 

In the use of class discussions the teacher has the 
greatest opportunity for the display of skill and tact 
in artistic teaching. Here he will manifest what strength 
as a teacher he has, or never. Thus class discussions 
prove to be a device of great importance in teaching 
geography. 

Field Work. — By the field work is meant, of course, 
studying geographical phenomena first-hand out in 
their natural environment; the study of the actual hill, 
brook, creek, tree, rock, spring, lake, animal, etc., in its 
natural surroundings. The value of going into the 



DEVICES IN TEACHING GEOGRAPHY, 439 

field and doing such work can hardly be overestimated 
as a device in geography teaching. It does the follow- 
ing desirable things for the learner: 

1. It develops and fosters the vitalizing relation 
which should exist between the learned and nature. 

2. It tends to give the learner the spirit of geog- 
raphy. 

3. It quickens the senses and sharpens the wits 
of the learner. 

4. It lays a sure, concrete basis for the geography 
of the analytic stage. 

5. It is the best device to help the learner to 
form the geography habit. 

Text-hook. — The text-book is a mere device in geog- 
raphy teaching, but a very important one. Much of 
the information concerning the phenomena of the earth 
can most conveniently be obtained by the learner from 
the text-book in geography. 

Most text-books in geography, though, treat of too 
many things and have too little to say about the im- 
portant things. That is to say, they are too extensive 
but not sufficiently intensive. And no text-book in 
geography is entirely adequate. In good teaching the 
text-book must be supplemented frequently, and much 
in almost any text may be omitted and in many cases 
should be omitted. 

Maps, Globes, etc. — Maps of various kinds are a 
valuable device in teaching geography. By their means 
the learner is able (1) to get the relative location of 
phenomena; (2) judge distances; (3) trace commercial 



440 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

routes; (4) better to remember geographical facts; (5) 
better to interpret geographically the phenomena of the 
earth. 

It would be much more difficult to learn geography 
than it now is were there no maps, and much more 
difficult to teach it, too. But however valuable they 
are found to be, still they are a mere device. A 
knowledge of the map is not a knowledge of geography, 
nor is a knowledge of the map even a guarantee of a 
knowledge of geography. 

Globes, etc., have in general similar uses to those 
of the map and are valuable devices. 

Map Drawing. — Drawing maps may be a useful de- 
vice in teaching geography or it may be all but useless. 
If the learner be led to study locations in the field 
work in geography then map the region studied origin- 
ally, if this be what is meant by map drawing, it is a 
very useful device. And this is the very kind of map 
drawing which should be done in. the synthetic stage of 
geography teaching. A good deal of it should be done 
in the early geography work to the end that the learner 
may grow into an appreciation of the real meaning of 
the map ; that is, that he may learn correctly to interpret 
the map. 

But if map drawing be made to mean merely copy- 
ing maps from the book or some other place either with 
the map to be copied before the learner or from memory, 
then map drawing is worth very little as a device in 
teaching geography. The time spent on such work is 
largely wasted. 



DEVICES IN TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 441 

Reference Library. — A good reference library is in- 
dispensable to the best geography teaching. In the 
type studies it is desirable to study each type inten- 
sively, and to do so it is necessary to have other sources 
of information than the regular text-book. When it is 
desirable to have the learner study any topic in geog- 
raphy intensively, he needs the reference library as a 
source of information. 

Sand Table. — The sand table is a very useful de- 
vice in teaching primary geography. The learner may 
be sent to it with much profit and pleasure to work 
out his idea of river, hill, plain, mountain, island, penin- 
sula, etc. Its value is in the opportunity it gives the 
learner to concrete his ideas, and create geographical 
phenomena in miniature. This, of course, makes the 
ideas vivid and easily remembered. 

Outlines. — Outlines are a valuable device in geog- 
raphy teaching if made by the learner. They are valu- 
able as organizers. They introduce order and system into 
the work, and if made by the learner, lessen the effort 
of memory largely. But if made by the teacher, they 
lose very largely their value in geography teaching ; they 
are still though of some value to the learner as organ- 
izers. 

Imaginary Journeys. — Imaginary journeys are a 
valuable device in the primary stage of geography work. 
They find their value in the following two things: 

1. They are a means by which the teacher may 
lead the learner to study particular cases of the geo- 



442 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

graphical elements in teaching the general ideas of these 
elements inductively. 

2. They give the learner good general ideas of the 
greatness of the earth and its people, and the variety of 
climate, relief forms, plant life, animal life, and human 
life on the earth's surface. 

The imaginary journey should be made realistic to 
the learner to as large a degree as possible, if best re- 
sults are to be obtained. 



CHAPTER XXXVI. 

COMMON ERRORS IN TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 

Prevalence of Errors. — To the student of psychol- 
ogy and methodology there seem to be many errors 
common in geography teaching as currently done. 
Among the most flagrant of these are the following: 
1. Teaching geography unscientifically. 2. Scattering 
over the subject too much. 3. Failure to teach home 
geography. 4. Lack of field work. 5. Making geog- 
raphy work" a mere memory drill. 6. Failure to place 
a geographical interpretation upon the phenomena of 
the earth. 

Unscientific Geography Teaching. — Unscientific 
geography teaching grows first out of the view that 
geography is not a separate science in itself, but is a 
composite of a number of sciences; and secondly, out of 
the view that geography is the study of the earth as the 
home of man. That is to say, it grows out of the 
popular and anthropological views. 

The first view leads to unorganized work. Scraps 
and fragments of geography are taught too much iso- 
lated. As one educator puts it, it is taught as *'hash" 
made up from the different sciences. No organizing 
principle is seen in the subject; the remembering of the 
facts depends upon intense application, and the wrong 
mental attitude toward geography is acquired. 



444 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

The second view is inadequate and leads the learner 
to the idea that all phenomena of the earth are to be 
interpreted as providentially occurring for man's bene- 
fit. 

The results of these errors are (1) the learner gets 
wrong ideas of what geography is; (2) he gets only 
a disorganized knowledge of geography; (3) he fails 
to grasp the subject so as to remember it well; (4) he 
acquires unscientific habits of mind. 

Scattering Too Much. — Scattering in teaching geog- 
raphy is a widely extended error. It is the besetting sin 
in the teacher's work in geography almost everywhere. 
It grows out of following too closely text-books in geog- 
raphy. A large number of things are learned in a very 
vague way by the learner from the text and remembered 
long enough for him to recite in the recitation. Almost 
nothing is woven into his fabric of knowledge in a per- 
manent way. He learns a little of a large number of 
things in geography, but not very much of any one 
thing. Indeed in such work it can truthfully be said 
that the teacher scatters all over creation. Such work 
has two undesirable results: 1. It gives the learner 
knowledge so scattering and vague that it is of little 
worth to him. 2. It gives the learner a very bad atti- 
tude of mind and undesirable habits of study. 

Failure to Teach Home Geography. — In very few 
schools is there a systematic line of home geography 
work done. In consequence the learner grows up igno- 
rant of the geography of his home region. He knows 
only in the most general and vaguest sort of way the 



COMMON ERRORS IN TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 445 

distribution of relief forms, the trees, the flowers, 
weeds, fungi; the fruit, vegetables, cereals, grasses; 
birds, frogs, snakes, beetles, bugs; rocks, clays, sand, 
soil, and other minerals, etc., of the immediate region in 
which he is reared. And a knowledge of these things 
is the only adequate basis which the learner can pos- 
sibly have for studying the geography of other regions. 

And a knowledge of these things studied in home 
geography is the most practical sort of knowledge the 
learner can acquire, valuable for the guidance it gives 
him in living and valuable for the happiness he gets 
from the intimate acquaintance with the perennially 
interesting natural phenomena. 

To neglect such work robs the learner of so much 
opportunity to attain the possibilities of life that it is 
a great error. 

Lack of Field Work. — No first class geography 
teaching ever has, or ever can be done without bringing 
the learner into actual touch with nature. And the 
only way to do this is by field work. Work in the lab- 
oratory is concrete and is superior to the more abstract 
work, but even it will not suffice. It has an element of 
unnaturalness in it. Nothing short of studying 
natural phenomena in their natural environment will 
give the learner the first-hand knowledge, a supply of 
which is entirely necessary to all good geography 
teaching. 

To neglect the field work in geography leaves a sort 
of haziness, an insufficiency in the mind of the learner 



446 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

which no amount of other kind of teaching can over- 
come. 

This error is wide-spread in geography teaching, for 
few teachers do field work in their teaching. 

Making Geography a Memory Drill. — Much of the 
geography work done in school at the present is hardly 
more than a mere memory drill. Children remember 
rivers as crooked lines, cities as little circles or checkered 
places on the map, capitals as little stars, etc. They are 
asked to remember hundreds and thousands of these, 
and made to think that they are studying geography. 

Some children were reciting their geography lesson 
on the New England states. A visitor asked permis- 
sion to ask them a question. It was granted. He said, 
''If your teacher should lie down with her feet at the 
southern boundary of Massachusetts, where would her 
head be?" The various children in the class had her 
head all the way from the St. Lawrence River to the 
North Pole. 

So geography frequently degenerates into not only 
a memory drill, but into a very formal memory drill, an 
exercise in remembering words. 

Goegraphy taught in this way loses most, if not all, 
of its educational value. And not only that, but such 
work is likely to be educationally degenerating to the 
learner. 

Lack of Interpretation. — A common kind of geog- 
raphy teaching is that in which facts of geography are 
taught without having the learner to place a geograph- 
ical interpretation upon these facts. For instance, Chi- 



COMMON ERRORS IN TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 447 

cago is said to be located in Illinois at the southern end 
of Lake Michigan, its population given and passed by 
at that. What distribution of terrestrial phenomena 
caused Chicago to be the size it is, and to 
be located where it is, is not worked out, 
nor is the distribution which Chicago is the cause of 
worked out either. That is to say, no geographical in- 
terpretation is placed upon Chicago as a geographical 
fact. 

And in general what is true of Chicago is true of 
other geographical phenomena; that is, they are left 
uninterpreted. 

Such teaching ( 1 ) makes geography a subject worth 
very little to the learner; (2) gives the learner the 
wrong idea of the subject; and (3) is unscientific. 



CHAPTER XXXVII. 

THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF NATURE STUDY. 

Nature of. — Nature Study deals with natural ob- 
jects. It not only deals with natural objects, but essen- 
tially deals with natural objects in their natural en- 
vironments. It is concrete, first-hand study of these 
objects, too. 

The study of a sawmill, of a locomotive or of a 
dwelling house might be valuable study for the learner, 
but it would not be nature study; for the sawmill, the 
locomotive and the dwelling house are not natural ob- 
jects. They are artificial. 

The study of natural objects in the laboratory or 
museum is not adequate for a working concept of nature 
study. Much of nature study can not be studied at all 
in the laboratory nor museum. In fact very little of 
nature study can. Objects of nature are unnatural in 
the laboratory or museum in most instances. For in- 
stance, bird life and habits can not be studied in the 
laboratory nor museum at all. It degenerates into a 
study of bird death. Thus in the concept of nature 
study is the element of natural environment. 

And again the abstract, second, third or fourth- 
hand study of natural objects in their natural environ- 
ment is not the full idea of nature study. The idea is 



THE SUBJECT-MATTER OP NATURE STUDY. 449 

contact study; knowledge got first-hand. The seeing, 
hearing, tasting, smelling, and touching those objects 
which appeal to the senses of the learner is an element 
in the idea of nature study. 

From these various elements the following defini- 
tion of nature study is reached: Nature Study is the 
concrete, first-hand study of natural objects in their 
natural environment. 

Nature Study and the Sciences. — Nature study has 
been defined as ''Primary science." The point of view 
in these studies is that nature study is not science, pri- 
mary or any other kind, in the sense in which science is 
usually understood. Any science is a body of truth 
systematized; that is, organized around some organizing 
principle. Thus, the truths of plant life organized 
around a principle constitute botany; the truths of ani- 
mal life organized around a principle constitute 
zoology; the truths of chemicals organized around a 
principle constitute chemistry, etc. In nature study 
the learner studies truths of plants, but he does not 
organize them so as to make botany; he learns truths 
of animals, but he does not organize them so as to make 
zoology; he learns truths of chemicals, but he does not 
organize them so as to make chemistry. Thus nature 
study is not primary botany, primary zoology, primary 
astronomy, etc. It is just nature study. 

The definition that makes nature study elementary 
science is a source of mischief in nature study work. 
It influences teachers really to try to make nature study 



450 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

teaching a kind of science teaching, which has been 
found time after time to be all but a failure. 

The Development of the Race and Nature. — In the 
long struggle of the race up to savagery and from 
savagery through barbaric life to civilization, Nature 
has unquestionably been its greatest teacher. To pro- 
cure food for the self and for the offspring, and to pro- 
tect the self and the offspring have been the main cares 
of the human species upon the earth for all time. In 
this there has constantly been a hand to hand conflict 
with Nature. She must yield food to the human species. 
The human species must protect itself against Nature. 
This has led to constant struggle, and the strength born 
of this struggle has been the greatest educating force 
the race has ever had. 

The individuals of the race who learned how to do 
these two things, (1) procure food for the self and 
young; (2) protect the self and the young, survived in 
the struggle and those who could not learn these two 
lessons perished. Thus Nature teaches. 

It thus appears that Nature in teaching the race 
bore fundamentally an economic relation to the race, 
the relation of food and protection, and as a means to 
this an intellectual relation. The intellectual develop- 
ment resulting from Nature's teaching enabled the race 
better to solve the problems of food and protection. 

While under Nature's teaching the human species 
developed physically and intellectually, the develop- 
ment was not limited to these two aspects of life. Under 



THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF NATURE STUDY. 451 

the influence of Nature, the human species has become 
aesthetic, social, moral, and religious. 

The response to harmony, variety and unity, and 
rhythm in nature has made the human race aesthetic. 

The necessity of cooperation in obtaining food and 
in protection has made man social, and growing out of 
his social life social influence together with nature's 
influence has made man moral and religious. 

So let it be repeated that Nature has always been 
the great teacher of the human race. 

"And Nature, the old nurse, took 
The child upon her knee. 
Saying, 'Here is a story book 

Thy Father has written for thee.' " 

It thus appears that Nature has influenced the race 
first and largely economically, then intellectually as a 
means to the economic ; then aesthetically, socially, 
morally and religiously, in its development up to sav- 
agery, through savagery and barbarism to civilized life. 

The Child. — In a very much fuller sense than the 
popular mind knows the child in his growth and de- 
velopment repeats the history of the race. He passes 
through the same stages in his physical development 
that the species which became human passed through, 
and he passes through the same stages in general socio- 
logically which the race passed through. Thus the child 
in his growth and development is an epitome of the 
growth and development of the race. 

Since this is true, and since nature played such 
an important role in the education of the race, it seems 



452 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

that nature study should occupy a very important place 
in the education of the child ; also, that he should study 
nature in about the relation it bore to the race in the 
race's development. 

The Suhject-Matter of Nature Study. — It is to be 
remembered again that a subject-matter is the material 
of study and that each subject-matter consists of two 
things, a set of facts and the relation of these facts. 

The facts to be studied in nature study are natural 
objects in their natural environments and the relation 
in which they are to be studied is the relation which 
natural objects bore to the race in its growth, as nearly 
as can be determined. The following is the formal state- 
ment for it: 

The subject-matter of nature study is natural ob- 
jects in their natural environments in the relation which 
natural objects have borne to the human race in its 
growth. 

It was shown above that the relation which natural 
objects have borne to the race has been primarily 
economic and intellectual^ but also aesthetic^ social, 
moral and religious. 

The Organizing Principle. — The organizing princi- 
ple of nature study is the relation in which the truths 
of natural objects as facts are to be studied. It is this 
organizing principle which makes nature study differ- 
ent from the sciences. It may be stated as follows: 
The organizing principle of nature study is the rela- 
tion between the objects of 7iature and the economic, 



THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF NATURE STUDY. 453 

intellectual, aesthetic, social, moral and religious aspects 
of man's life. 

Functions of the Organizing Principle. — The or- 
ganizing principle of nature study is helpful to the 
student of nature study in various ways, the chief of 
which are three, selective, interpreting and emphasiz- 
ing. 

The Selective Function. — The field of natural ob- 
jects is almost unlimited; so large is it that compara- 
tively only a few things can be studied in a lifetime. 
Since this is true a selection of natural objects for 
study must be made, and the organizing principle of 
nature study helps the student of natural objects to do 
this. It indicates to the student to select those natural 
objects which affect largely man's life economically and 
intellectually, aesthetically, socially, morally or relig- 
iously, or in all these aspects. It indicates that things 
in nature which hardly affect man's life at all would 
not be selected for nature study work. If plants, they 
might be studied in botany; if animals, they might be 
studied in zoology, but not in nature study. They 
have not had much to do with the race's development. 

The Intei'preting Function. — The learner has in- 
terpreted the truths of any object in nature only when 
he has traced out their relation to the various aspects 
of man's life. 

For instance, if the May beetle were studied 
through its life history, the learner would simply know 
the May beetle as a fact, but to place a nature study 



454 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

interpretation upon it is to learn its relation to man. 
It has a very important economic relation to man. 

Thus the organizing principle of nature study indi- 
cates to the student the interpretation to place upon 
nature study objects, and this is its interpreting func- 
tion. 

The Emphasizing Function. — Not all the objects of 
nature selected are of equal importance in nature study. 
Some are very much more important than others and 
should be emphasized much more than others. 

The organizing principle of nature study indicates 
that those objects of nature which have had large in- 
fluence on the life of the race should be emphasized 
largely and that those which have had less influence 
should be emphasized less. 

For instance, the Codling moth should be dwelt 
upon till the learner knows it most thoroughly as an 
object of nature, and also till he knows its large eco- 
nomic relation to man. 

To indicate to the student of nature study the 
degree of emphasis to place upon the natural object 
studied is the emphasizing function of the organizing 
principle of nature study. 



CHAPTER XXXVIII. 

THE PURPOSE OF NATURE STUDY. 

Meaning of. — The purpose of nature study is the 
effect on the life of the learner which the proper pur- 
suit of nature study produces. This effect will in 
general be of two kinds. The learner, first, in the pur- 
suit of nature study will acquire a large stock of very 
useful knowledge; and, secondly, he will get a mental 
training unsurpassed by any subject to be studied in 
school. The two purposes are (1) a knowledge-giving 
purpose; and (2) a disciplinary purpose. 

The Knowledge-Giving Purpose. — Of the valuable 
knowledge which it is the purpose of nature study to 
give the following are important points: 

1. A first-hand knowledge of much of the animal 
life in the child's environment, both friendly and un- 
friendly to man. 

2. A first-hand knowledge of much of the plant 
life in the vicinity of the child's home, both friendly 
and unfriendly to man. 

3. A first-hand knowledge of the soils in the vicin- 
ity of the child's home. 

4. A first-hand knowledge of the climate of the 
region about the child's home. 



456 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

5. A first-hand knowledge of the surface structure 
of the earth in the region of the child's home. 

6. A knowledge of the heavenly bodies visible to 
the learner in the region of his home. 

Knowledge of Ayiimal Life. — The race's early rela- 
tion with nature was mainly biologic ; that is, connection 
with animal and plant life ; at first predominantly with 
animals, then later, with plants. 

The race's early relation with nature was also eco- 
nomic, the struggle for food and clothing, and protec- 
tion for self and offspring; and the race's most funda- 
mental relation to nature to-day and always is economic, 
the struggle for food, clothing and protection. 

The knowledge of animal life which it is the pur- 
pose of nature study to give is thus economic and 
fundamental, and has always been so, and will always 
be so. 

Such knowledge is practical knowledge, and practical 
knowledge is the only kind of knowledge worth striv- 
ing to obtain. 

It is in this aspect of nature study that the learner 
learns much about the horse, the cow, the hog, the 
sheep, the goat, the dog, the cat, the rabbit, the squirrel, 
the rat, the mouse, the mole, etc. ; much about the 
robin, the oriole, the bluebird, the various kinds of 
blackbirds, the crow, the jay, the sparrows, the wood- 
peckers, the hawks, the owls, poultry, the threshers and 
other birds; much about toads, snakes, turtles, lizards, 
etc.; much about flies, mosquitoes, bugs, beetles, moths. 



THE PURPOSE OF NATURE STUDY. 457 

butterflies, etc. ; something about worms, and other kinds 
of animals. 

What knowledge could be of more value to the 
learner from the economic point of view than the knowl- 
edge of this animal-human relation is inconceivable. 

So this purpose of nature study is so important 
that it can not well be over-estimated. 

A Knowledge of Plant Life. — The race's relation to 
plant life in the past and at present is mainly economic, 
though not entirely so. Plant life and animal life, too, 
have aesthetic, social, moral and religious relations to 
mankind. But to minister to man's physical needs has 
been the great use of plants to man for all time. The 
intellect of the race has been developed, of course, in 
getting a knowledge of plants, but the knowledge has 
always pointed largely to economic ends, a supply of 
food, clothing and shelter. 

In this aspect of nature study the learner should 
learn much about corn, wheat, oats, domestic grasses, 
and other forage plants; apples, plums, pears, peaches, 
cherries, quinces, and grapes; strawberries, blackberries, 
raspberries, gooseberries and currants ; potatoes, cabbage, 
asparagus, tomatoes, celery, beets and other vegetable 
foods. 

He should learn much about trees, the elms, oaks, 
hickories, linden, walnuts, maples, beeches, etc. ; much 
about weeds, poisonous plants, flowers, domestic and 
wild; something of bacteria and other fungi. 

This knowledge obtained in nature study work is 
first-hand knowledge, practical and concrete. 



458 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

It is evident that such knowledge is highly valuable 
and that to give the learner such knowledge is an im- 
portant purpose of nature study. 

A Knowledge of Soils. — The learner in nature study 
should learn something of the soils; clay soil, loam soil, 
sandy soil and muck soil ; their physical composition and 
their adaptability to plants. This is a part of the 
nature study work. 

A Knowledge of Climate. — In the nature study 
work something of climate should be learned in relation 
to man's economic interests. This work should be 
chiefly observations of weather conditions. 

A Knowledge of Surface Structure. — It is a part of 
the purpose of nature study to teach the learner some- 
thing of the surface structure of the region where he 
lives. He should be led to see the depth of the soil, 
clays, gravel; how near rock is to the surface; in short, 
what he would find if he should go straight down ; also, 
the creeks, ponds, lakes, swamps, etc., in the neighbor- 
hood. 

Knowledge of Heavenly Bodies. — The heavenly bodies 
have always been objects of wonder and speculation to 
the race, and have always been thought by a large part 
of humanity to have some very close connection with 
the life of man. 

Something of what is known of these should be 
taught in nature study; a few of the constellations, 
Orion, Great Bear, Little Bear, Cassiopeia and a few 
others. 

The Disciplinary Purpose. — Of the disciplinary 



THE PURPOSE OF NATURE STUDY. 459 

purpose of nature study the following are important 
points : 

1. To maintain and give the learner a fervent, 
many-sided, permanent interest in the objects of nature. 
2. To teach the learner how to use his eyes, ears, 
nose, mouth and hands in getting a knowledge of na- 
ture ; that is, to give him good habits of observation. 

3. To instill into the learner a love of nature. 

4. To cultivate sense-perception, memory, judg- 
ment and reasoning. 

5. To give the learner the spirit of free inquiry 
and free investigation; that is, the scientific spirit. 

Interest in Nature. — The learner before he comes to 
school has a native interest in nature, but usually after 
he comes to school this native interest is starved and 
lost. He is drilled on book work to the exclusion of any 
work which would keep alive this interest in nature 
which he has when he comes to school. 

To maintain what interest the learner has in nature 
when he enters school is a part of the purpose of nature 
study in school. 

Everyone knows that he finds time to do that in 
which he is most interested. So it may be safely as- 
sumed that the learner will learn many of the things 
which he should know about nature, if he has a strong 
enough interest in nature. 

To give the learner this fervent interest in many 
objects of nature so that nature will attract him, and 
to make it permanent in his life is certainly a purpose 
of nature study. 



460 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

Habits of Observation. — Most people have lamen- 
table habits of observation of nature around them. They 
have eyes but they do not see, they have ears but they 
do not hear. They get only a small part of the knowl- 
edge and pleasure out of life which natural objects 
could furnish them. Most people do not so much as 
recognize at sight the common birds, the common weeds 
nor the common trees of the region in which they were 
reared. Such dense ignorance is not correctly to be at- 
tributed to lack of opportunity, but to a lack of habits 
of observation. 

To give the learner the habit of using his eyes, 
ears and other senses to the end that he may improve 
his opportunities to acquaint himself with the wonder- 
ful and valuable things of nature around him is a pur- 
pose of nature study. 

A Love of Nature. — The one who loves nature gets 
much more out of life than the one who does not. He 
always sees something to admire, to attract, to look for- 
ward to, and to hope for. He gets happiness from win- 
ter; with glad expectancy he awaits the coming of 
spring; he gets life from the summer sunshine and de- 
veloping nature, and sees with joy the maturity of 
autumn. 

"To him who in the love of Nature holds 
Communion with her visible forms, she speaks 
A various language." 

Fortunate is the child who early learns to Jove fer- 
vently nature. It will prove one of his greatest bless- 
ings. 



THE PURPOSE OF NATURE STUDY. 461 

It is one of the purposes of nature study to teach 
the learner ^a love of nature, and he is likely to grow 
into such a love in his first-hand work with the objects 
of nature. 

Cultivation of Sense-Perception, Memory, Judg- 
ment and Reasoning. — Any faculty of mind is cultivated 
by normal exercise. And no other school subject is 
quite so well adapted to furnish normal, healthy exer- 
cise to sense-perception. Every lesson is an exercise 
of sense-perception. Contact with the objects of nature 
calls forth, strengthens, and quickens sense-perception 
to a degree not possible in any other kind of school work. 

All cultivation of memory consists in building up 
complex systems of association. In nature study a 
nature study system is built up. It consists of many 
things woven into a system by correlations, repetitions, 
feeling and attention. But weaving knowledge into sys- 
tems in this way is to cultivate memory as effectively as 
is possible. 

Tracing out the animal-human relations and plant- 
human relations in nature study is a most excellent exer- 
cise for the cultivation of judgment and reasoning. It 
is noticable that those who are good nature study stu- 
dents are as a rule good thinkers. But to be a good 
thinker means to have good judgment and be a good 
reasoner. 

Nature study gives the learner exercise in the kind 
of reasoning he needs so largely in life, the kind of 
reasoning that enables him to adapt himself to his 
natural environment and his natural environment to 



462 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

himself. In no other kind of reasoning does the learner 
need to be more skillful. 

Thus it is quite a large part of the purpose of 
nature study to cultivate sense-perception, memory, 
judgment and reasoning. 

The Scientific Spirit. — The scientific spirit is the 
spirit of search for the truth; the spirit that 
is not afraid to search for truth; the spirit 
of investigation that the truth may be found. It is the 
attitude of mind that makes anything short of the truth 
hateful ; that believes in the sufficiency of truth ; that be- 
lieves in the ultimate triumph of truth. It is the spirit 
of free inquiry and free investigation and its watch- 
words are experiment, observe, think. 

Nature study leads the learner gradually into this 
attitude of mind by leading him to deal with truth con- 
stantly obtained first-hand. And to do this very desir- 
able thing is a part of the purpose of nature study. 



CHAPTER XXXIX. 

BASIS AND STEPS IN NATURE STUDY. 

Meaning of Basis. — Basis in nature study is what 
of nature the child knows when he comes to school upon 
which the new work can be founded. 

Since the nature study work is to be mainly bio- 
logic, the learner's knowledge of animals and plants, 
which he brings to school is mainly his basis for nature 
study. 

Of these, animals and plants, different children will 
have widely different degrees of knowledge, and differ- 
ent ideas of the relations of those they do know to man. 

Their knowledge will be of the popular kind con- 
taining fragments of truth mixed with error and super- 
stition which passes for truth. 

Many children have a dislike for the common toad 
because of the superstition that "he makes warts on 
one's hands," but they must not kill him because "that 
will make your cows give bloody milk." Thus one 
superstition may negative another. 

The dragon fly, "snake doctor" doctors the snakes; 
the hawks and owls are all bad, because they catch 
chickens, and the woodpeckers peck holes in the trees 
and kill them. These and other popular errors con- 
cerning nature many children bring to school with them. 



464 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

In this web of truth, error and superstition the 
teacher is to find the learner's basis for nature study. 

Meaning of Steps in Nature Study. — Steps in na- 
ture study are those movements of the learner's mind in 
learning the various nature study objects. They are 
movements forward; mental advances. For instance, 
the advance of the learner's mind in learning the life 
of the robin is a step in nature study. Such a large 
step as this can be analyzed into many smaller steps of 
course. 

Classes of Steps. — The steps in nature study which 
refer to the various topics to be studied in the nature 
study course from the standpoint of time are the chron- 
ological steps in nature study. They have reference to 
the sequence of the topics studied in the different years. 
When one knows the chronological steps in nature study 
he knows what to have children study in the first year, 
in the second year, and so on through the course. The 
chronological steps determine the extensiveness of the 
nature study course. 

What to do with each topic studied in the nature 
study work is a question of the logical steps in nature 
study. The logical steps indicate what to have the 
learner to do with each nature topic studied; that is, 
how treat the topic. The logical steps in nature study 
determine the intensiveness of the work. 

There are thus two classes of steps in nature study : 
1. The chronological. 2. The logical. 

Chronological Steps. — It is probable that no two 
persons in making out a course of study in nature study 



BASIS AND STEPS IN NATURE STUDY. 465 

to be followed through school would agree on the various 
topics to be included. The reason for this is that the 
field from which choice is to be made is so large that 
material might be chosen from it for a hundred courses, 
all good, yet differing in many respects. For this rea- 
son, no specific course of topics will be selected in this 
study. The individuality of the teacher, the local con- 
ditions and so on should determine to some degree what 
topics to study. 

But since the race 's relation to nature was so largely 
economic, and since the economic relation is so largely 
valuable, the economic aspect of nature study should be 
emphasized strongly. 

"And sure good is first in feeding people, then in 
dressing people, then in lodging people, and lastly in rightly- 
pleasing people, with arts, or sciences, or any other subject 
of thought." — Ruskin. 

And since the race's early relation to nature was 
mainly biological, relations to plants and animals, the 
topics of the nature study course should be mainly bio- 
logical, animals and plants. Animals and plants also 
possess the greatest direct interest to children. 

Thus the nature study course should be mainly 
made up of animal studies and plant studies, though 
not entirely, and the economic aspect should be strongly 
emphasized, though not to the entire exclusion of the 
aesthetic, social, moral and religious. 

Consistent with these truths the nature study work 
should be chosen largely from the following topics: 



466 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

1. Domestic animals: the dog, horse, cat, cow, 
sheep, pig, goat and rabbit. 

2. Tame birds: hen, duck, goose, pigeon, canary, 
parrot, turkey, peafowl. 

3. Household insects: flies, mosquitoes, clothes 
moths, carpet beetles, fleas, lice, bedbugs, cockroaches, 
and ants. 

4. Harmful garden and field insects: curculio, 
codling moth, peach tree borer, rose beetle, tent cater- 
pillar, canker worm, fall webworm, cutworm, grass- 
hoppers, aphids, rose slug, pear slug, grape-berry moth, 
sphinx, San Jose scale, mealy bugs, other scales, Colo- 
rado potato beetle, cucumber beetle, currant and goose- 
berry worms, cabbage butterfly, army worm, squash 
bug, strawberry saw fly, strawberry leaf roller, chinch 
bug and Hessian fly. 

5. Beneficial garden and field insects: honey bee, 
bumblebee, hornet, ichneumon flies, braconids, chalcis 
ilies, syrphus flies, tachina flies, lady bugs, dragon flies, 
damsel flies, and aphis lion. 

6. Beautiful and interesting insects: monarch 
butterfly, swallowtail butterfly, other butterflies, Cecro- 
pia moth, Luna moth, Polyphemus moth, and mud wasp, 
and walking stick. 

7. Beneficial plants: corn, wheat, oats, rye, 
timothy, clover, buckwheat, potato, cabbage, tomato, 
celery, asparagus, bean, pea, onion, radish, rhubarb, 
beet and parsnip. 

8. Injurious plants: weeds, poison ivy, poison 
sumac, larkspur, cockle, snow on the mountain, jimson 



BASIS AND STEPS IN NATURE STUDY. 467 

weed, poison hemlock, pokeweed, poison oak, buckeye 
and horsechestnut, laurels. Death-cup mushrooms and 
night shade. 

9. Fruits: apple, cherry, peach, pear, quince, 
plum, orange, lemon, strawberry, raspberry, blackberry, 
mulberry, gooseberry, currant, grape, squash, pumpkin, 
watermelon, muskmelon and cucumber. 

10. Flowers : rose, tulip, crocus, narcissus, canna, 
gladiolus, phlox, centaurea, calliopsis, cosmos, dahlia, 
hydrangea, nasturtium, lilies, lilac, etc., etc. ; also wild 
flowers. 

11. Birds: robin, bluebird, thresher, thrushes, 
woodpeckers, sparrows, chickadees, cuckoos, flycatchers, 
catbird, orioles, bobolink, purple grackle, cowbird, red- 
birds, shrikes, heron, wrens, larks, kildeer, crow, hawks, 
quail, dove, swallows, owls, etc. 

12. Insectivorous animals: toad, bat, frogs, newts, 
moles, water dog and salamander. 

13. Forest trees: oaks, elms, maples, hickory, wal- 
nuts, tuliptree, beeches, ashes, cedars, pines, locusts, 
magnolia, linden, mulberry, hackberry, wild cherry, 
gum, sycamore, poplars, etc. 

14. Miscellaneous: centipede, millipede, sowbug, 
crayfish, slugs, earthworms, clam; ferns, algae, mush- 
rooms, molds, mildew and bacteria. 

15. Heavenly bodies : Sun, planets, stars, con- 
stellations. 

Material for a nature study course for any school 
may be chosen from such a large field as here indi- 



468 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

cated. Conditions must determine to a considerable de- 
gree the selections made. 

The Logical Steps. — The question for study here is, 
How best treat the topic chosen for selection? 

Two considerations must guide the teacher in this 
work. First, the best way to bring out the essential 
facts of the object studied; secondly, the best way to 
show its human relation; that is, its economic, intel- 
lectual, aesthetic, social, moral and religious relations. 

Since nature study work deals mainly with life, 
living topics will be treated first. 

The business of any living thing in nature is ( 1 ) to 
care for itself; (2) to care for its young. In caring 
for itself it, (1) must get food; (2) must protect 
itself, and it must do the same in many cases for its 
young. 

All that is worth knowing about any animal or 
plant as such, points towards these four points. Having 
traced these points out and having shown the human 
relation, the essential facts in the life of the being 
have been learned, and they have been given a nature 
study interpretation. 

The following will indicate the logical steps in 
dealing with any object in nature study: 

ANIMAL OR PLANT. 

I. General appearance. 

1. Male and female. 

2. Business in life. 

a. To care for itself. 



BASIS AND STEPS IN NATURE STUDY. 469 

1'. Food, 
a'. Organs for securing. 
1". Sense organs, 
a". Of sight, 
b". Of hearing, 
e". Of touch, 
d". Of smell and taste. 
2". Feet, claws, beak, etc. 
b'. Organs for preparing. 

v. Mouth, teeth, etc. 
c'. Manner of securing, 
d'. Food habits friendly or unfriendly 
to man. 
2'. Protection. 
a'. Defensive, 
b'. Offensive. 

c'. Running away, concealment, feign- 
ing, etc. 
d'. Habitation. 

1". Fixed or transient, 
e'. Color adaptation, 
b. To care for young. 
1'. Production of. 

a'. Brought forth alive. 
V. Hatched from egg. 
c'. By division of parent, 
e'. Stages of growth. 
1". Mode of life in each. 
2". Appearance in each stage. 
3". Food in each stage. 



470 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

II. How protect, multiply, or combat. 

As many of these steps may be taken as conditions 
warrant in studying any object of nature. The stage of 
development of the children may make it best to omit 
some. But, if the teacher will adhere reasonably closely 
to these steps, the children can be led to work out the 
essential truths of any object of nature in a very help- 
ful way, too. 

The step, ' ' Food habits friendly or hostile to man, ' ' 
and the step, "How protect, multiply, or combat," 
bring out the human relation of the nature object. 

Teachers in nature study are usually distressed in 
two things: (1) they do not know what to 
teach; that is they do not know what to select 
and do not know enough about anything they do 
select to teach it; (2) they do not know how to study 
and learn and teach any object of nature. This may 
be said in this way : teachers do not know nature study 
themselves and are not self -directive in studying it as 
they teach. 

With the vast array of material indicated in these 
studies to select from, with the good manuals of nature 
study now published to help teachers and with the 
method of treating an animate nature study object indi- 
cated above, any ambitious teacher can help himself in 
both of these distressing difficulties. 

In applying the logical steps in nature study to 
any plant such steps as only apply to animals, of course, 
must be omitted. Otherwise the general plan is the 
same. 



BASIS AND STEPS IN NATURE STUDY. 471 

In tracing through the toad, for instance, the step, 
**Food habits friendly or hostile to man," would be 
dwelt upon largely, and emphasized because of its great 
economic relation to man. And the step, ''How protect, 
multiply, or combat," probably needs strong emphasis 
on only ''How protect." 

Again, in tracing through the peach tree, for in- 
stance, the step "How protect, and multiply" should 
bring out the protection of the peach tree from mice, 
rabbits, peach tree borers, curl leaf, brown rot, cold 
winters and stock. It should also, bring out how to 
grow a seedling peach, how bud it, how train it, and 
general care. 

Similar points should be brought out about the 
apple, pear, cherry, and other fruits. 

The social and ethical side of the human relation 
of these points can be and should be impressed upon 
children. For instance, if I let contagious or infectious 
diseases exist, and injurious insects breed on my prem- 
ises they may spread to my neighbor's premises and 
cause him injury and loss. Thus to permit an old 
blighted pear tree to stand in my orchard as a center of 
infection to the neighborhood is an unsocial and im- 
moral act. 

Inanimate Nature Study Objects. — The method of 
dealing with objects of nature which do not possess life 
is simply to lead the learner to learn in so far as possible 
the essential facts of the object, then trace out its 
human relations. 

It is evident that nature study work as indicated 



472 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

above correlates with oral primary language lessons, 
written primary language lessons, reading, spelling and 
writing. 



CHAPTER XL. 

DEVICES AND ERRORS IN NATURE STUDY. 

Devices. — Devices are the physical means used in 
teaching nature study. They are more numerous and 
varied in nature study work than in most other sub- 
jects. A volume could be written on devices alone in 
nature study. All that will be attempted here is the 
enumeration and brief discussion of some of the most 
important. The following may be considered devices 
in nature study : 1. Assignments. 2. Class discussions. 
3. Text-books. 4. Teacher's manuals. 5. Apparatus. 
6. Government bulletins. 7. Reports of agricultural 
schools. 8. Periodicals and catalogues. 

Assignment Sf Class Discussions and Text-hooks. — 
Assignments and class discussions hold about the same 
relation to the nature study lesson that they hold to les- 
sons in other subjects. These have been treated before, 
and while they should be rethought, it is not necessary 
to re-discuss them in this connection. 

Text-books are not likely to be very valuable devices 
in the hands of the learner, unless the first-hand work 
with natural objects is made the chief line of work and 
the text be employed as a guide or reference book. 

A text-book even in the hands of the teacher fre- 



474 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

quently proves a hindrance rather than a help in nature 
study. 

So far as the writer knows, there is no text-book 
extant in nature study good to put in the hands of the 
children for class work. 

Teacher's Manuals. — At the present stage of nature 
study teaching in our schools, teacher's manuals consti- 
tute an extremely important device in nature study 
work. They enable the teacher to find out what to lead 
the learner to look for in studying; that is, they are 
guides to the teacher who has only a very limited knowl- 
edge of the topics he wishes to teach. 

There are published now some most excellent ones, 
helpful as to subject-matter and fertile in suggestion. 
The following are all worthy of high commendation; 
fresh, vigorous, and sound pedagogically : 

1. Hodge's Nature Study and Life. 

2. Insect Life, An Introduction to Nature Study, 
Comstock. 

3. Manual for the Study of Insects, Comstock. 

4. Dennis's Nature Study. 

5. Bird Guide, Numbers 1 and 2, Chas. K. Reed, 
Worcester, Mass. 

With the help of such manuals as these, the teacher 
who desires to do so can help himself largely on the 
subject-matter of nature study. 

Apparatus. — The apparatus for nature study are so 
various that no attempt will be made to enumerate and 
describe all of them. They are opera glasses, micro- 
scopes, hand lenses, insect nets, cyanide bottles, mount- 



DEVICES AND ERRORS IN NATURE STUDY. 475 

ing cases, pins, breeding cages, flower pots, aquaria, 
vivaria, etc. 

These are described in teacher's manuals and direc- 
tions for use and for making many are given. Some of 
them are very helpful in nature study work, almost 
indispensable. Most, unless it be a microscope, are ob- 
tainable by any thoughtful teacher. A microscope is not 
indispensable, although valuable in some nature study 
work. 

Government Bulletins. — The government bulletins 
on various aspects of nature study and agriculture sent 
out by the Department of Agriculture are very valuable 
helps to the teacher of nature study. Most of them are 
sent out free of charge and are obtainable for the ask- 
ing. Every one interested in nature study should write 
to the Department of Agriculture and have his name 
placed upon the permanent mailing list that he may 
receive all bulletins sent out. They contain the very 
latest discovered information on many nature study 
topics. 

Eeports of Agricultural Schools. — Congress pro- 
vided a good many years ago for an Agricultural Col- 
lege in each State. These send out bulletins and re- 
ports, too. They are valuable. Each teacher should 
have his name put on the permanent mailing list. 

Periodicals and Catalogues. — Some periodicals are 
very valuable to teachers of nature study. Such a one 
is The National Fruit Grower, St. Joseph, Mich., pub- 
lished and sent out twelve times per year. 

Florists' and Nurserymen's catalogues are helpful 



476 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

to teachers of nature study. Each teacher should write 
Vaughan and Co., Chicago, and Storrs and Harrison 
Co., Painesville, Ohio, and have his name placed on the 
permanent mailing list for these beautiful and useful 
catalogues. They send them free of charge. 

Other firms will doubtless do the same. 

Errors in Teaching Nature Study. — Nature study is 
one of the new subjects in the curriculum of the Ameri- 
can schools. As in all new subjects the work has been 
frequently, and at present is in many places in the 
experimental stage of development. Teachers are grop- 
ing to a considerable degree. As a result errors abound. 
These in a general way grow out of two things: 1. 
Teachers do not know the subject; that is, they are 
lacking in knowledge of natural objects. 2. They do 
not know the method of nature study; that is, they do 
not know how to deal with any object of nature in the 
nature study work. 

The following is a list of common errors made con- 
cerning nature study in our schools. 1. The gross neg- 
lect of nature study in education. 2. Teaching books 
instead of nature. 3. Making nature study a kind of 
elementary science. 

Neglect of Nature Study. — The study of Nature, 
the greatest teacher of the race, is grossly neglected in 
most schools of America to-day. Children go through 
the twelve years' course of study in many schools, coun- 
try, village, town and city schools, without ever having 
had a single lesson of first-hand study of natural objects 
in their natural environment under school incentives. 



DEVICES AND ERRORS IN NATURE STUDY. 477 

If they get such lessons, it is not under school direction. 

Such an error is fundamental, far-reaching, dwarf- 
ing, and degenerating in the life of a people. It leaves 
the senses uncultivated; observation of nature dwarfed; 
love of nature undeveloped, and the rising generations 
lamentably ignorant of their natural environment. In 
no other thing are the American schools so inefficient as 
in this important matter. 

**The education of the senses neglected, all after 
education partakes of a drowsiness, a haziness, an in- 
sufficiency, which it is impossible to cure." 

'' To-day most men are shut off from the pleasures 
the naturalist experiences in the woods because having 
eyes we see not, and having ears we hear not, and having 
minds we comprehend not the messages nature would 
be continually giving us." 

*^The omission of soil lore from a system of educa- 
tion of the young is suggestive of relapse to barbarism. 
To allow a child to grow up without planting a seed or 
rearing a plant is a crime against civilized society, and 
our armies of tramps and hordes of hoodlums are among 
the first fruits of an educational system that slights this 
important matter." 

Books Instead of Nature. — It is a common error of 
teachers in first attempting to teach nature study to 
read to the children from some book on nature study, 
have the children recite orally what they remember of 
it as a second lesson, and frequently as a third lesson 
to write out what they remember of what was read to 
them and what they recited on orally. 



478 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

And another aspect much like the first in result is 
for the teacher to study the book, tell in story form 
what she has learned, then have the oral and written 
lessons to follow. 

This is called nature study in good faith and actu- 
ally it seems that some teachers who do this think they 
are teaching nature study. 

The writer has personally known so good a book 
as Hodge's Nature Study and Life used in this way. 
And when the children did not get enthusiastic over 
the work, nature study was called a failure, soon 
dropped and that most inspiring book discredited. 

Nature study had as well not be attempted as to 
attempt it by leaving all nature out and teaching books. 
Such work fails in every important educational value 
which the study of nature first-hand gives. 

Such teachers are mere book babblers and much of 
the time would not know the thing about which they 
talk, if they should meet it face to face in its natural 
environment. 

Making Nature Study Science. — Attempts have 
been made to make nature study elementary science. 
Such work has usually resulted in failure. 

Science is a modern thing. It is a product of the 
race in the later stages of its development, and as such 
is adapted to a greater degree of maturity of mind than 
possessed by the child when he should be learning his 
nature study work. Modern sciences as taught in the 
schools to-day are special interests of mature minds. 

Zoology and botany in the universities, colleges, and 



DEVICES AND ERRORS IN NATURE STUDY. 479 

high schools of the present do not teach the children 
what they should learn in nature study in the way they 
should learn it in nature study. 

The sciences have different organizing principles 
from nature study, and are and should be taught differ- 
ently from nature study. 

To attempt to teach nature study as elementary 
science usually kills the subject. 



APPENDIX. 

SUPPLEMENTARY READING. 

Nature of Supplementary Beading. — In connection 
with the reading material found in the text-book other 
reading material should be placed in the hands of the 
children for them to read. Much of this kind of ma- 
terial may be used profitably in what is called sight 
reading; that is, reading by the children without their 
having made previous preparation on the selection. This 
kind of work is what is called supplementary reading, 
and the selections are called material for supplementary 
reading. 

Need and Value of. — There is much need for sup- 
plementary work in teaching reading. It is needed in 
teaching reading for the following reasons: 

1. To put more life and interest in the reading 
work, and thus make it easier for both the pupils and 
the teacher. 

2. To give the learner speed in interpretation and 
skill in oral expression. 

3. To lead the learner to love good literature, and 
thus into the habit of reading good literature. 

Difficulties. — Most teachers recognize the value of 
supplementary reading and the desirability of doing 
such work, but have two difficulties: 1. Many do not 



SUPPLEMENTARY READING. 481 

have suitable material. 2. Many do not know what 
suitable material is nor how to get it. 

In order to help teachers in obtaining suitable ma- 
terial a list of books and selections for each of the 
grades of the primary schools has been arranged. The 
lists are made up of the names of books and selections 
approved by the judgment of the best educators in our 
country. 

It is not expected that any teacher will be able to 
secure all of these books and selections. It is not at all 
necessary. But some of them will doubtless be avail- 
able to any earnest teacher. 

FIRST YEAR. '"] 

1. Classic Stories for Little Ones, McMurry, 

Public School Publishing Co., Blooming- 
ton, 111 $ .40 

2. Twilight Stories, Foulke, Silver, Burdette 

and Co., Chicago 35 

3. Cyr's Primer, Ginn and Co., Chicago 30 

4. The "Werner Primer, The Werner School 

Book Co., Chicago 25 

5. Our Little Book for Little Folk, American 

Book Co., Chicago 40 

6. Cyr's First Reader, Ginn and Co., Chicago. . .35 

7. Fables and Rhymes for Beginners, Ginn and 

Co., Chicago 30 

8. Hodskin's Little People's Reader, Ginn and 

Co., Chicago 30 

9. Baldwin's First Reader, American Book Co., 

Chicago 25 



482 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

10. Stories for Kindergartens and Primary 

Schools, Wiltse, Ginn and Co., Chicago.. .35 

SECOND YEAR. 

1. Robinson Crusoe, for Boys and Girls, 

McMurry, Public School Publishing Co., 
Bloomington, 111 $ .25 

2. Grimm's Fairy Tales, Wiltse, Ginn and 

Co., Chicago 35 

3. Stories Mother Nature Told Her Children, 

Ginn and Co., Chicago 50 

4. Easy Steps for Little Feet, American Book 

Co., Chicago 25 

5. Verse and Prose for Beginners, Houghton, 

Mifflin and Co., Chicago 25 

6. First Year Nature Reader, Werner School 

Book Co., Chicago 40 

7. The Riverside Reader and Primer, Hough- 

ton, Mifflin and Co., Chicago, 205 pages. . .30 

8. Johonnot's Book of Cats and Dogs, American 

Book Co., Chicago 17 

9. The Hiawatha Primer, 147 pages, Hough- 

ton, Mifflin and Co., Chicago 40 

10. Cooke's Nature Mj^hs, A. Flanagan, Chi- 
cago 40 

THIRD YEAR. 

1. Scudder's Fables and Folk Stories, 200 

pages, Houghton, Mifflin and Co., Chicago $ .40 

2. Stories of Indian Children, Public School 

Publishing Co., Bloomington, 111 50 

3. Cyr's Third Reader, Ginn and Co., Chicago .45 



SUPPLEMENTARY READING. 483 

4. Stickney's Esop's Fables, Ginn and Co., Chi- 

cago 40 

5. Short Stories of Our Shy Neighbors, Ameri- 

can Book Co., Chicago 50 

6. Golden Book of Choice Reading, American 

Book Co., Chicago 30 

7. Book of Tales, American Book Co., Chicago .50 

8. Peabody's Old Greek Folk Stories, Hough- 

ton, Mifflin and Co., Chicago 25 

9. Myths of Old Greece, Pratt, Ginn and Co., 

Chicago 60 

10. Heart of Oak No. II., D. C. Heath and Co., 

Chicago 40 

FOURTH YEAR. 

1. Hawi;horne's Wonder Book, Houghton, Mif- 

flin and Co., Chicago $ .40 

2. Hawthorne's Tanglewood Tales, Houghton, 

Mifflin and Co., Chicago 40 

3. Kingsley's Water Babies, Ginn and Co., 

Chicago 45 

4. Francillon's Gods and Heroes, Ginn and Co., 

Chicago 50 

5. Baldwin's Old Stories of the East, American 

Book Co., Chicago 45 

6. Stories from Arabian Nights, Houghton, 

Mifflin and Co., Chicago 40 

7. Ruskin's King of the Golden River, etc., 

Houghton, Mifflin and Co., Chicago 25 

8. Black Beauty, A. Flanagan, Chicago 35 

9. Pioneer History Stories, McMurry, Public 



484 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

School Publishing Co., Bloomington, 111. .50 
10. Stories of Great Americans, American Book 

Co., Chicago 40 

FIFTH YEAR. 

1. Anderson's Fairy Tales, Second Series, 

Ginn and Co., Chicago $ .45 

2. Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, by Montgom- 

ery, Ginn and Co., Chicago 35 

3. Stories of Our Country, American Book Co., 

Chicago 40 

4. Lays of Ancient Rome, Houghton, Mifflin and 

Co., Chicago 25 

5. The Voyage to Lilliput and Brobdingnag, 

Houghton, Mifflin and Co., Chicago 40 

6. Polly Oliver's Problem, Houghton, Mifflin 

and Co., Chicago 60 

7. The Children's Life of Lincoln, McClurg 

and Co., Chicago 1.25 

8. First Book in American History, Eggleston, 

American Book Co., Chicago 60 

9. Heroes of Asgard, MacMillan Co., Chicago. . .50 
10. Lads and Lassies of Other Days, McClurg 

and Co., Chicago 50 

SIXTH YEAR. 

1. Fry's Brooks and Brook Basins, Ginn and 

Co., Chicago $ .70 

2. Ten Boys on the Road from Long Ago to 

Now, Ginn and Co., Chicago 60 

3. Burrough's Birds and Bees, Houghton, Mif- 

flin and Co., Chicago 60 



SUPPLEMENTARY READING. 485 

4. Franklin's Autobiography, by Montgomery, 

Ginn and Co., Chicago 50 

5. Longfellow's Evangeline, Houghton, Mifflin 

and Co., Chicago 25 

6. Irving 's Sketch Book, A. Flanagan, Chicago .50 

7. Arabian Nights, by Hale, Ginn and Co., Chi- 

cago 55 

8. Hughs 's Tom Brown at Rugby, Ginn and 

Co., Chicago 60 

9. Lamb's Tales of Shakespeare, Houghton, 

Mifflin and Co., Chicago 50 

10. Scudder's George Washington, Houghton, 

Mifflin and Co., Chicago 40 

SEVENTH YEAR. 

1. Scott's Lady of the Lake, Ginn and Co., Chi- 

cago $ .45 

2. Swift's Gulliver's Travels, Ginn and Co., 

Chicago 40 

3. Dana's Two Years Before the Mast, Hough- 

ton, Mifflin and Co., Chicago 60 

4. Hawthorne's Tales of White Hills, Hough- 

ton, Mifflin and Co., Chicago 40 

5. Washington's Rules of Conduct, Diary, Let- 

ters and Addresses, Houghton, Mifflin 

and Co., Chicago 25 

6. Wiltse's Jean Valjean, Ginn and Co., Chi- 

cago 1.05 

7. Wiggins' The Story of Patsy, Houghton, 

Mifflin and Co., Chicago (Fine) 60 

8. Ball's Star-land, Ginn and Co., Chicago 1.10 



486 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

9. Wyss' Swiss Family Robinson, Ginn and Co., 

Chicago 55 

10^ Hawthorne's Biographical Stories, Hough- 
ton, Mifflin and Co., Chicago 25 

EIGHTH YEAR. 

1. Lowell's Vision of Sir Launfal, and Other 

Poems, Houghton, Mifflin and Co., Chi- 
cago $ .25 

2. Two Great Retreats of History, Ginn and 

Co., Chicago 60 

3. Scott's Talisman, Ginn and Co., Chicago. . . .60 

4. Lamb's Adventures of Ulysses, Ginn and Co. .35 

5. Starr's American Indians, McClurg and Co., 

Chicago 1.00 

6. Plutarch's Lives, Ginn and Co., Chicago 55 

7. Spyri's Heidi, Ginn and Co., Chicago 60 

8. Long's Ways of Wood Folks, Ginn and Co., 

Chicago 60 

9. Stories from English History, by Blaisdell, 

Ginn and Co., Chicago 50 

10. Hawthorne's House of Seven Gables, Hough- 
ton, Mifflin and Co., Chicago 70 



INDEX. 

Alphabet Method 47 

Analytic Word Method 55 

Abou Ben Adhem 87 

Applications of a Number 121 

Advantages of Inductive Method 202 

Attribute 226 

Assignments 91. 255 

Analysis 262 

Abuse of Parsing and Diagrams 270 

Aspects of Purpose of History 357 

Aspects of Basis in History 366 

Anthropological View of Geography 396 

Aspects of Basis in Geography 419 

Adequate Basis 206 

Analytic Stage of Geography 427 

Advanced Stage of Geography 430 

Apparatus 474 

Appendix 480 

Basis of Reading 45 

Basis of Number 161 

Basis for Other Language Studies 179 

Basis in Grammar 205 

Basis for the Sentence 205 

Bad Methods of Teaching Definitions 266 

Blue Violet 318 

Bad Selection of Objects for Study 328 

Basis in History 368 

Bad Order of Steps 392 

Basis for the Study of Other Sciences 412 



488 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

Basis of Geography 419 

Basis 

for Climate 419 

for Relief Forms 420 

for Minerals 420 

for Animal Life 421 

for Plant Life 421 

for Distribution of Human Life 422 

Basis in Nature Study 463 

Books Instead of Nature 477 

Classes 

of Method 11 

of Purpose in Reading 33 

Complexity and Accuracy 167 

Classification 190 

Correct Way to Teach Definitions 198 

Classes of Sentences 239, 241 

Comparison of Noun and Pronoun 193 

Class Discussions 258 

Communication of Thought and Feeling 305, 309 

Ceaseless Change in the Life of a People 334 

Concept, History 342 

Ceaseless Struggle 335 

Cultivation 

of Reasoning 363 

of Moral Judgment 364 

of Imagination 364 

of Memory 365 

Comparison of Two Orders 380 

Concept, Geography 400 

Cultivation in Geography 

of Sense-perception 415 

of Memory 415 

of Imagination 415 

of Reasoning 415 



INDEX. 489 

Correcting Superstitions 414 

Chronological Order 374 

Comment 433 

Child 451 

Cultivation in Nature Study 

of Sense-perception 461 

of Memory 461 

of Judgment 461 

of Reasoning 461 

Classes of Steps in Nature Study 464 

Definition of Reading 41 

Definite Procedure 56 

Didactic Discourse 71 

Definition of Number 96 

Disciplinary Purpose 159, 170, 461, 415, 363 

Definition 186 

Diagrams 263 

Distinctive Purpose 280 

Development of Thought and Feeling 288 

Definition of History 335 

Devices 

in Grammar 255 

in History 383 

in Geography 437 

in Nature Study 473 

Dividing Function 

in History 350 

in Geography 407 

Disciplinary Purpose 

in History 363 

in Geography 415 

in Nature Study 458 

Development of the Race, and Nature 450 

Excelsior 77 

Erastus Wren's Virtue 81 



490 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

Errors 

in Teaching Reading 88 

in Teaching Number 163 

in Teaching Primary Language 328 

in Teaching Grammar 265 

in Teaching History 388 

in Teaching Geography 443 

in Teaching Nature Study 476 

Exhausting the Number 166 

Effect of Study of Grammar 170 

Essential Elements of the Sentence 245 

Emphasizing Form 268 

Expanding and Substituting 271 

Events in History 334 

Emphasizing Function 454, 349, 406 

Factors Determining Method 29 

First Stage 149, 147, 145, 137, 113 

Formal Process 

of Addition 144 

of Subtraction 146 

of Multiplication 149 

of Division 152 

Former View 182 

Forms of History 351 

First Order 376 

Failure to Interpret Events 389 

Functions of Organizing Principle 346, 403, 453 

Field Work 438 

Failure to Teach Home Geography 444 

General Method 9 

Golden Touch 82 

Genesis of Number 95 

Gender 248 

Geographical Facts and Relations 400 

Government Bulletins 475 



INDEX. 



491 



History of Language Lessons 277 

Help on the Problem 212 

Historic Forces 33^ 

Historical Events 334 

History as a Record of Events 333 

Home Geography 429' 

Habits of Observation 460 

Indefinite Assignments 91 

Inductive Method 195 

Idea 230 

Indefinite Purpose 266 

Indian Corn 322 

Imagination Lessons 32& 

Insufficient Development of Thought 329 

Interpreting Function 348, 405, 453 

Imaginary Journeys 441 

Interest in Nature 459^ 

Inanimate Nature Study Objects 471 

Index 487, 492 

Knowledge-Giving Purpose 18 

Knowledge 

of Use of Language 176 

of Animal Life 456 

of Plant Life 457 

of Soils 458 

of Climate 458 

of Surface Structure 458 

of Heavenly Bodies 45& 

Kinds of Devices in Grammar 255 

Language Period 288 

Laying Basis for Grammar 282, 283 

Language Lessons, a Kind of Grammar 328 

Learner's Knowledge 

of the Family 368 

of the Church 368. 



492 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

Of the School 369 

of Business 369 

of the State 369 

Logical Steps 468, 424, 373 

Lack 

of Differentiation 92 

of Field Work 445 

of Interpretation 446 

Love of Nature 460 

Methods of Teaching 21 

Methods in Use in Number 102 

Method of Symbols 102 

Mental Discipline Furnished 170 

Mind's Natural Way of Defining 197 

Mind's Natural Attitude 213 

Method of History 350 

Meaning of Purpose 17 

Meaning of 

Basis in History 368 

Steps in History 373 

Devices in History 383 

Maps 439 

Meaning of 

Purpose in Geography 409 

Basis in Geography 419 

Steps in Geography 424 

Devices in Geography 437 

Map Drawing 440 

Making Geography a Memory Drill 446 

Making Nature Study Science 478 

Nature of Method as a Subject 10 

Nature of Number 94 

Number as a Whole 118 

Notation of Number^ 135, 123 

Nature 186 



INDEX. 493 

Noun and Pronoun 199 

Negligence in Criticism 330 

Nature of History 332 

Nature of Geography 393 

Nature Studies 448 

Nature Study and the Sciences 449 

Neglect of Nature Study 476 

Orcharc* Life 85 

Oral Expression and Interpretation 36 

Origin of Number 97 

Order of Steps 211 

Object 223 

Origin of Primary Language 275 

Organizing Principle 

of History 345 

of Geography 402 

of Nature Study 452 

Oral Teaching 381 

Outlines 386 

Phonic Method 49 

Phonetic Work 64 

Practical Method 112 

Primary Stage of Number 113 

Purpose 

of Reading 32 

of Number 156 

of Grammar 168 

of Primary Language 275 

of History 357 

of Geography 409 

of Nature Study 455 

Poor Assignments 268 

Poor Analysis 270 

Parsing 260 

Public Documents 385 



494 PRACTICAL METHODOLOGY. 

Pictures 385 

Popular View of Geography 395 

Preparatory Stage of Geography 4 28 

Primary Stage of Geography 429 

Periodicals and Catalogues 475 

Reading and Literature 37 

Relations in Number 119 

Relations Among Topics 166 

Recent View 182 

Relation 191 

Relation of Primary Language to Other Subjects 300 

Record of Events 333 

Results of Ignorance and Prejudice 361 

Reference Books 441 

Reports of Agricultural Schools 475 

Special Method 32 

School Curriculum 39 

Subject-Matter 

of Reading 39 

of Number 156 

of Grammar 182, 185 

of Primary Language 294 

of History 344 

of Geography 400 

of Nature Study 452 

Stages of Reading 43 

Sentence Method 53 

Symbolic Discourse 71 

Speer Method 108 

Symbols Instead of Number 163 

Seed Time and Harvest 362 

Scientific Spirit 417, 366 

Socializing the Learner 367 

Steps 

in Reading 43 



INDEX. 495 

in Number •. 101 

in Grammar 211 

in Primary Language 305 

in History 373 

in Geography 424 

in Nature Study 464 

Synthetic Stage 4 26 

Stages of Geography Learning 426 

Selective Function 453, 403, 347 

Scattering Too Much 444 

Teaching Act 9 

Two Views of Method 26 

Thought 236 

Text-books 259 

Teaching Grammar Too Early 273 

Teaching Principles 201 

Type Studies 435 

Unsystematic Number Teaching 165 

Uniformity of Nature's Laws 411 

Unscientific Geography Teaching 443 

Violations of Basis 208 

Views of Geography 393 

Wrong Number Concepts 16 4 

Work in Harmony with Basis 209 

Work by Years 431 

Word 233 

Word Method 55 

Ward Method 60 



MAR 30 1909 



